traditional practices, 51, 76, 77
Virgin Lands Campaign, 543–4, 547, 561
See also collectivization, agricultural; famine; land
Akhmatova, Anna, 218, 431, 488–9, 490, 491, 492, 583
Akmolinsk Labour Camp for the Wives of Traitors to the Motherland (ALZhIR), 294, 316–17, 324, 356–61, 364–5, 366, 447, 510, 525, 540, 544
children’s compound, 364
conditions, 357–9
correspondence rules, 359–61
Dolinka orphanage, 317, 358
effect on prisoners, 556–7, 571–2
guards, 364, 630–32
Pioneers, 359
sexual relations in, 364–5
‘special regime’, 357–8, 360, 367–8
teenagers in, 360
Aksyonov, Vasily, 626–7
Aleksandr Nevsky (film), 270
Aleksandrov, Grigorii, 366, 557
Aleksandrova, Irina, 473
Aleksandrova, Valentina, 461
Aleksandrovna, Liudmila, 572
Alekseyeva, Klavdiia, 294–6
Alekseyeva, Liudmila, 597–8
Aliger, Margarita, 199, 400, 407
Alliluev, Fyodor, 177
Allilueva, Nadezhda, 155, 236
Allilueva, Svetlana, 402
All-Russia Centre for the Study of Public Opinion, 641
All-Union Budget Commission, 219
All-Union State Film Institute (VGIK), 260
Altai region, 240, 435, 656
Altman, Iogann, 494, 496, 589
ALZhIR, see Akmolinsk Labour Camp for the Wives of Traitors to the Motherland
Amur labour camp, 90
Andrei Sakharov Public Centre and Museum, 634n
Andronnikov, Iraklii, 406
anketa, see questionnaires
Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 562
‘anti-cosmopolitan’ campaign, 494–503, 508, 509, 518
anti-Semitism, 420, 508–12, 518, 521, 570, 646, 647, 648
Antonov-Ovseyenko, Sofia, 298–300, 299, 336
Antonov-Ovseyenko, Valentina, 299, 336–8, 337
Antonov-Ovseyenko, Vladimir, 16, 298, 299, 336
apartments, see communal appartments; housing
architecture
collective housing, 9–10
Constructivist, 10, 150, 152
Arctic exploration, 416
Arctic Gulags, 55, 208, 213
Arctic railway, 468
Arkhangelsk, 546
exile to, 116, 143, 216–17, 292, 390, 391, 392, 424, 544, 545, 601
labour camps, 326, 568, 599
arrests
doubts over, 276–81, 283
exposed (1956), 594
families ostracized, 285–92
and labour supply, 423, 427
mass (1930s), 73, 76, 112, 113, 191, 231, 234, 235, 279, 303, 335, 351, 584, 602, 630, 643
‘mistaken’, 141, 272, 273, 275, 278, 279, 284, 305, 309
preparation for, 241–7, 277, 304
review (1939), 279, 280
speaking out against, 231–2, 281–5
wartime, 392
Arsenteva, Zoia, 331–2, 332
Artek holiday camp, 129, 249
Artseulov family, 292–3
asceticism, Bolshevik ideal, 14–19, 30, 158, 161
Avdeyenko, Aleksandr, 192, 193, 195
Averbakh, Leopold, 256
‘Averbakhians’, 281
Axis Powers, threat, 235–6, 371–2, 467
Babak, Marina, 621
Babel, Isaak, 251, 280
Babitskaia, Liuba (née Ivanova, formerly Golovnia), 170, 557, 557–9
Babitsky, Boris, 168, 168, 169, 170, 195, 366, 558
Babitsky, Volik, 168, 170, 170, 366, 367
Babi Yar massacre (1941), 570, 571
Babushkina, Lydia, 598–9, 650
Bagirov, M. D., 585
Baigulova, Elena, 183
Baikal–Amur railway, 468, 581
Baitalsky, Mikhail, 30–31, 180, 641–2
Baku, Institute of Medicine, 585–6
Baltic Factory, 648
Baltic States
Soviet invasion (1939), 372–3
Soviet rule, 537
Bamlag complex, 581, 585
Bargin, Ivan, 424–5
Barinov, Sergei, 358, 368
Basmachi Muslim rebels, 200
Bazanov, Filipp, 216
Begicheva, Natalia, 494, 497
Belarus (Belorussia), 89, 105, 106, 108, 164, 260
anti-Semitism, 509
Jews, emancipation, 69
orphanages, 99, 235
post-war arrests, 467, 468, 469
Belbaltlag labour camp, 113–14
Belikova, Zinaida, 528
Belinsky, Vissarion, 494
Belykh, Gregorii, 12–13
Berg, Raisa, 24
Berggolts, Olga, 523
Beria, Lavrenty
and amnesty (1953–4), 530, 536–7
arrests, review, 279, 280
East German reforms (1953), 537
execution, 537
fear of, 526, 527
and Gulag system, 468, 527, 530
and Norilsk strike, 533
rape of Okunevskaia, 402n
Berlin, Isaiah, 488
Berman, Matvei, 100
Berzin, Eduard, 116–17, 118, 215, 526, 633
Bezgodov, Viktor, 355
Bezymensky, Aleksandr, 286
Bikin transit camp, Khabarovsk, 629–30
Bindel, Riab, 273–4
biographies, spoilt, 199, 401, 462, 476, 598, 647
concealment from authorities, 131, 137, 147, 167, 329, 334, 473–8, 473–9, 563–4, 598, 599, 601, 603, 604
concealment from families, 147, 548, 601, 649–50, 652, 653–4
consequences of, 199, 436, 473, 476, 510, 647
remedying, 262, 344–5, 347, 401, 435, 473, 478
wartime relaxation of controls, 435
See also questionnaires
birthrate, decline (1930s), 160
Black Book, The (Grossman & Ehrenburg), 494
black market, 172, 242
black people, 183–4
Bliukher, Marshal V. K., 289
Bobrovskaia, Tsetsiliia, 288
Bolshevik Cake Factory, 138
Bonner, Elena, 14, 36–7, 42, 243, 285, 289, 295–6, 540–41
Bonner family, 14, 36–7, 41–3, 48, 137, 540–41
Borshchagovsky, Aleksandr, 490, 494, 497–501, 501, 502, 622
Botova, Afanasia, 581–2‘bourgeois culture’, 7, 8, 16
bourgeoisie post-war, 470–73
‘Red Terror’ against, 5
repression, 136
return feared, 72–3
Soviet, emergence (mid 30s), 157–63
‘bourgeois specialists’, 42, 55, 73, 113, 153
Bragin family, 435, 437, 526
Brezhnev, Leonid, 155
political clampdown, 605, 616–17, 623
and wartime suffering, 621
Brik, Lilia, 625
Britain
appeasement policy, 371
declares war on Germany (1939), 372
negotiations with Soviet Union (1939), 372
Briukhova, Marfa, 326
Brodsky, Iosif, 646, 648
Bronshtein, Katia (née German), 545n
Bronshtein, Svetlana, 511, 606–7
Bronshtein, Vera, 511, 529
Bubennov, Mikhail, 519
Budkevich family, 14, 245, 286–7, 343–4, 583–4
Bukharin, Nikolai, 9, 309
alleged crimes, 238, 272, 276
on Moscow Master Plan, 150
and NEP, 6–7, 71, 72, 83, 154
recants (1934), 197
Right Opposition, 230
Stalin and, 72, 74, 595
Stalin’s defeat, 71
trial and execution, 238, 297, 309
Bulat family, 335–6, 449
Bulgakov, Mikhail, 194, 489, 622
Bulgakova,
Elena, 408, 622, 623
Bulganin, Nikolai, 536, 537
bullying, 393, 528
in orphanages, 319, 335, 340
in school, 289, 307, 334, 348, 417, 512
in university, 348, 354
Bunin, Ivan, 482
burials, 54
Bushuev family, 316–20, 356–9, 455, 456, 458, 475–6, 525, 556–7, 580, 581, 600–601, 601, 606 316, 317, 318, 358, 359, 455, 600
Bykov, Rolan, 185
careerists, 29, 266, 461, 472, 474
carnivals, 159
cattle, numbers, 93
Caucasus, German successes in, 410, 429
Cement (Gladkov), 15
censorship, 623
labour camp letters, 218
relaxation, 561 (1960s), 605, 621
wartime, 371, 383, 443, 464
Central Committee, 230, 231, 458
decree against Akhmatova/ Zoshchenko (1946), 488, 489, 491, 500n
and dissent (1956), 597
Kliueva/Roskin censure, 492
members’ execution or imprisonment (1937–8), 238
Central Control Commission, 35, 36
Central House of Literature, 623, 624
Chapaev (Furmanov), 59
Chaplin, Charles, 482
Chausova, Maria, 164–6, 166
Chechens, 420, 424
Chechik, Elizaveta, 185
Chechneva, Marina, 407
Cheka, 30, 36, 58, 167, 283, 293
See also KGB; MVD; NRVD; OGPU
Cheliabinsk, 43, 167, 394, 405, 460, 462, 476, 511
Cheliuskin, SS, 220
Cherdyn, 39–40, 118, 347–8, 553, 576
Cheremkhovo, Irkutsk, 104, 450
Cherkassy orphanage, 450–52
Cherkesov, Vsevolod, 582
Cherkesova, Elena, 559, 582
Cherkesova, Svetlana, 296–7
Chermoz, 297, 348
‘special settlement’, 103, 353–4, 355
Chernoutsin, Igor, 595–6
childcare, 41–50
grandmothers’ role, 41–5
as mother’s role, 161
children
abandoned, 99, 106–7, 160, 285, 289–92, 329–35
of arrested parents, 221–3, 224–6, 246–7, 249, 285–7, 294–7, 316–69, 435, 436
christening, 44
in communal apartments, 39, 40, 167, 177, 183, 184, 185–6, 204–5
and Communist utopia, 188–90
domestic responsibilities, 324–5
of elite, 276–7
evacuated (1940s), 387, 388–92
in exile, 87–91, 95, 99, 106, 108, 116, 143, 145, 210–11, 216–17, 350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 358–9, 363–4, 462
family life, 11–14, 162–9, 175, 177–9, 228
fear, 352
games, 24–5
in Gulag, 99
homeless, 99
ignorance of Great Terror, 276–7
image of absent parents, 548, 550, 551–2
as informers, 107, 122–6, 124–5, 129, 261
Jewish, 66, 70
‘kulak’, 90, 99, 131, 142–7, 353, 436, 479, 480–81, 656
learning through play, 24
loss of parents, 319, 390–92
names changed, 316, 327, 342
parents, denunciation, 122–6, 129–30
and parents’ arrest, 208–9, 274–5, 300–305, 307–8, 309, 313–14, 390–92, 439
and parents’ guilt, 53, 77, 274–5, 307, 322, 342, 344, 345, 347, 444, 445
parents’ history concealed from, 391–2, 646–7, 652, 654
patriarchal families, 53, 77
political indoctrination, 20–22, 24–5, 27, 273–4
post-war life, 458
poverty, 458
private family housing, 168–9
and relative’s arrest, 300–305
released from orphanages, 547–8
renunciation of parents, 130–32, 300–304, 343–4, 349, 475–7
reunited with parents, 108, 449–54, 544–58, 560, 561–5, 571
rules of listening and talking, 38–40, 254
on the run, 107–10, 343
rural, 126–9
schooldays, 294–8
silenced, 254
social acceptance, desire for, 341, 343, 345–7, 349, 352–3, 354, 355–6
of specialists, 211, 213, 216–17
values, change in, 32–3, 50
See also orphans; Pioneers
children’s homes, orphanages, 99, 316, 317, 329
children released, 547–8
conditions in, 318–19, 320, 335–43
damage by, 335
identity, erasure, 125–6, 316, 327, 342
in labour camps, 363, 364
labour in, 342
moral system, 341
population, 99
as recruiting ground, 341
runaways, 343
Soviet propaganda, 341
children’s labour colonies, 329
child support, 161
China, Cultural Revolution, 37
Christmas, 146n
Chubar, Vlas, 301
Chuianov, A. S., 412
Chukovskaia, Lydia, 484–5
Chukovsky, Kornei, 482, 485, 622
Church, Russian Orthodox
campaign against, 5, 7, 68, 127, 349
land, redistribution, 51–2, 77
public confession and penance, 33
relaxation of controls (1943–8), 435, 437
role in marriage and divorce, 10
violent assault against, 85
wartime, 414
See also priests; religion
churches, destroyed, 85
cities
and famine (1930s), 98
housing shortage, 120–22, 172, 174
migration to (1930s), 98–9, 118–19, 126–7, 128
purging, 98–9
wartime destruction, 457
workers and NEP, 7
Civil War (1918–20), 4, 13, 18, 32, 34, 35, 38, 54, 58, 200, 240–41
campaigns against ‘kulaks’, 34, 87
casual relationships in, 10
class war, rural, 78n
grain requisitioning, 49, 72
hostages, 58
peasant wars, 93
Polish invasion, 164, 240
private trade outlawed, 65
romance of, 59, 73, 92, 416
shortages, 6, 73
class identity, manipulation, 136–47
class war, 74
halted by NEP, 62
rural, 78n, 124
coal, production, 83, 110, 113, 159n, 426
Code on Marriage and the Family (1918), 10
Cold War, 464, 481
and defence of Soviet culture, 488, 499
and fear of foreigners, 492–3
military demands, 458
collectivization, agricultural, 81–93
criticism of, 85, 129, 438, 441
and disrepair, 96
failure, 96–7
Komsomol and, 77, 79
in NEP, 83
peasant resistance to, 84–5, 92–3
second wave (1930), 93
taxation policies, 83
temporary halt (1930), 93
as trauma, 128–9
workers’ livestock, 158
See also kolkhoz
Comintern, 311
leadership reshuffle (1935), 230
Piatnitsky at, 228, 229–32
purge (1937), 540
Stalin and, 230–31, 234
communal apartments, 9, 152–3, 172–86
conversation in, 253
‘corridor system’, 177–9
elder, post of, 179–80
impact on residents, 186
kitchens, 182
lack of privacy, 180, 182–4
as microcosm of Communist society, 179
mutual surveillance and, 180–82
nostalgia for, 185
and sense of comradeship, 184–5
&nbs
p; shared responsibilities, 179
squabbles in, 181–2
toilets, 183–4
communal living, 9–10, 51, 152, 167, 172–86, 176–7
Communism
consumerism and, 158
defence, 30
and Fascism, 236, 373
future rewards, 159, 188
instilling, 20–22
‘march towards’, 191, 616
NEP and, 7
private life and, 4
violent leaps towards, 4–5, 91–2
War Communism, 5, 6
Communist Party, Communists (Bolsheviks)
agrarian policies, 215
belief in, 33–4
collective leadership, 536, 594
‘condensation’ policy, 9, 174–5
Congresses, 11; (1925), 36; (1927), 72; (1934), 193; (1961), 538 (1956), 575, 593–6, 597–9, 614, 615, 646
control systems, 34–40
education policy, 20–25
ethos, dominance, 32
family policies, 8–9, 160–64, 166
flee German army (1941), 380
and Great Terror, 272–3
identity, 33
judgement, acceptance, 272–3
leaders, purge, 238, 464–5
membership numbers, 3n
mistrust of peasants, 81–2
morality, 33
and NEP, 71–2
officials, NKVD servants, 264
officials, shift of power from, 422, 432
and peasants, 50, 51, 77, 83–6
and personal appearance, 158–9
Plenum (1953), 537
portrayed as ‘big family’, 162
religion, campaign against, 68, 127
seize power (1917), 3
seen as Jews, 420, 508
as self-policing collective, 37
as source of all justice, 272
as source of Truth, 190–91
in troikas, 283
unity, repentance and, 244
weakened influence, wartime, 422, 432, 434–46
work and discipline, ethos, 168
See also Central Committee; Party members; Soviet regime
comradeship
communal apartments and, 184–5
wartime, 420–21
‘condensation’ policy, 9, 174–5
confession, public, 33
confessions, extraction, 272–3
Conquest, Robert, 98
conscript labour, 467–8
Constituent Assembly, 38n
Constructivism, 10, 150, 152
consumer culture, Soviet (mid-30s), 158–9, 166
consumer goods, 467
demand (1928–), 119
post-war shortage, 457, 458–9
consumer industries, 466n
investment in, 157–60
conversations, private, 36–40, 183–4, 251–5
Cooper, Gary, 482
cooperative sector, 466n
Cossacks, 429
cremation, 54n
Crimea, Soviet Germans, 651
Crimean Tatars, 420, 424
Criminal Code, 82, 204
criminal responsibility, age of, 99, 247–8, 329
currency reform (1947), 467
Czechoslovakia
German invasion (1939), 371, 372
The Whisperers Page 90