by Alexis Coe
APPENDIX
149 As with the additional letters, only minor spelling errors have been corrected.
150 ILY was one of their more obvious ciphers, meaning I love you. We do not know how Jim responded, or whether or not the post office held the letter for Freda, as it was addressed to her. Did she, always delighted by attention and intrigue, find the impersonation flattering, entertaining, or worrying? We do not know the answer to that, either. But we do know that Alice penned another, much longer letter to Jim just two days later—and that she played a convincing Freda. She wrote with an ambivalence that encouraged Jim’s affections while also introducing a rivalry. Among her various supposed liaisons, he was, of course, her “favorite,” just as Alice was Freda’s. The emphasis on “keeping promises,” however, sounds very much like the voice of Alice herself, as did her insistence that Jim thought of her less than she thought of him.
Alice and Freda. See also Mitchell, Alice; Ward, Freda: eloping night for, 47–51; engagement of, 32–37; media adaptations of, 207, 213; openness of, 25, 34, 48; proposal of, 32–33, 156, 201; separation of, 51–53, 54–63; sleepovers for, 27, 48; Volkmar’s discovery of, 47–53
American modernity, 101, 133–134, 208, 213
arraignment, 91–94 arrests, 68, 85
Astor, Vincent, 13 Austen, Jane, 50–51
Barrett, W. H., 129, 131
Bernhardt, Sarah, 207
Borden murder, 202
Buckskin Lou. See Davis, Sarah
Callender, John Hill, 146, 153, 156, 210
Campbell, Michael, 157
Carmack, Edward W., 206
castration, 181
Chartrand, R. F., 187
chumming, 25, 34
Civil Rights Act of 1875, 99, 205
Comstock, Thomas Griswald, 141, 142, 143, 209
Cooper, Duncan and Robin, 206
crimes of passion, 111, 149, 158, 163
cross-dressing, 26, 31, 35–36, 157
dances, 150–151, 175, 176
Daniel, F. E., 181
Davis (chief of police), 68
Davis, Katherine Bement, 184
Davis, Sarah, 108–109
death. See also murder: of Mitchell, Alice, 176–178; of Mitchell family, 212; suicide plans, 27–29, 103, 177; threats, 27–29, 37, 42–44, 165
depression: love sickness, 57–59, 149, 207; melancholia, 141–142, 209; of Mitchell, Alice, 57–59; of Mitchell, Isabella, 70, 97, 141–143, 144–145, 209; postpartum, 70, 142–143, 209
DuBose, Julius: background of, 98–99, 130; grave of, 204; on habeas corpus of Lillie Johnson, 118, 119, 125–126; in lynchings, 130, 133; media drama of, 71–72, 88, 105–107, 125–126; on testimony of Alice Mitchell, 161–162, 168; on testimony of Jo Ward, 116; on women’s place in court, 107–109
Duggan, Lisa, 208
Ellentuck, Dan, 213
Ellis, Havelock, 183–184, 214
Elmwood Cemetery, 178–179, 212
elopement, 47–51
engagement, 32–37
erotomania, 79–80, 157
Europe, same-sex love in, 26
Evans, Henry Clay, 206
Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two Hundred Women (Davis, K. B.), 184
female hysteria, 112–113
flirting: by Johnson, Lillie, 113–114, 119; legislature for, 206; by Ward, Freda, 27–28, 38–41, 45
Foucault, Michel, 143
Franklin, Lucy, 19, 57–58, 149
French novels, 26, 181
funeral, for Freda Ward, 88–90
Gantt, George: background of, 68–69; insanity defense by, 70–73, 75–76, 79, 138–143; media control tactics of, 70–73, 110, 138
Gay American History (Katz), 213
gender norms. See also men; same-sex love; women: case importance for, 100–101, 133–134, 180–184; masculinization and, 74–77, 82, 183–184, 214; sports defined, 140, 147
Golddust, visits to, 27, 48
Grace Episcopal Church, 36, 88
graves, 178–179, 204, 212
guns, 42–44
habeas corpus, of Lillie Johnson, 104–126; arraignment before, 94; defense, 112–113, 117–119; DuBose’s ruling of, 118, 119, 125–126; Mitchell’s, Alice, appearance at, 110; prosecution, 113–116, 119, 123–125; testimony of Jo Ward at, 116–120; testimony of Lillie Johnson at, 121–123; verdict of, 105, 126; women spectators at, 107–109
Henning, Z. B., 123
hermaphrodites, 158
Higbee School for Young Ladies, 25, 30
Hindle, Annie, 157
homosexuality. See same-sex love
household, women’s role in, 30–31, 70, 95
Hughes, Charles H., 181–182, 213, 213
Hypothetical Case, 139–143, 152, 209
indictment, 86
insane asylum, Alice Mitchell in, 172–176
insanity defense: erotomania, 79–80, 157; establishing, 138–157; hereditary influence on, 141–143, 144–145, 183–184; Hypothetical Case for, 139–143, 152, 209; marriage desire as, 154–156; media coverage of, 70–82, 150; medical experts on, 153–157, 181–184; Mitchell family’s testimonies on, 145–149; Mitchell’s, Alice, testimony for, 167–168, 211; same-sex marriage as, 154–156, 167; timing of, 204
insanity of pregnancy (puerperal), 70, 141–143, 144–145
jail: Johnson, Lillie, in, 85, 115; Mitchell, Alice, in, 70, 127–129
James, Jessie Rita (alter ego), 113, 125, 191–192
Jim (of Wellsville, Mo.), 187–191, 215
Jim Crow laws, 106–107
jobs, for women, 31
Johnson, J. M., 83, 85, 95
Johnson, J. M., Mrs., 98
Johnson, James, 148
Johnson, Lillie: arraignment of, 94; arrest of, 85; defense of, 112–113, 117–119; flirtatiousness of, 113–114, 119; gun buying with Alice by, 42–44; habeas corpus hearing for, 104–126; indictment of, 86; in jail, 85, 115; as Jessie Rita James, 113, 125, 191–192; letter to Jo Ward from, 116; letters from Alice to Ashley by, 59–60; letters to men from, 113, 187, 191–192; media on, 83, 85, 94, 112–113, 126; at murder scene, 22, 102–103, 121–123; prosecution of, 113–116, 119, 123–125; stalking with Alice by, 20, 63; testimony of, 121–123; testimony of Jo Ward on, 85, 116–120; verdict for, 105, 126
jury, 99–100
Katz, Jonathan Ned, 213
Kiernan, James G., 183
Kimbrough, Mrs.: media depiction of, 98; stalking Freda at, 20–21, 60
King, H. Clay, 85
Kinsey, Alfred, 184
Krafft-Ebbing, Richard von, 180, 212
Laudanum, 28–29
Lees, Edith, 214
lesbianism. See same-sex love
letters: from Ada, 51–53; from Alice, as alter egos, 56–57 187–193; from Alice to Freda, 33, 41–43, 54–56, 61–63, 185; to Chartrand, 187; in court, 110–111, 206; discovery of, 48–50; from Freda to Alice, 21, 39, 62, 185–186; to Jim (of Wellsville, Mo.), 187–191, 215; from Lillie to Jo, 116; from Lillie to men, 113, 187, 191–192; matrimonial classified ads, 113; to Roselle, 40, 59–60, 165; to Virg (of Carbon, Tx.), 192–193
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 25
love sickness, 57–59, 149, 207
lynching, 129–131, 133
Madness and Civilization (Foucault), 143
marriage: Alice and Freda’s eloping night for, 47–51; Alice and Freda’s engagement for, 32–37; Alice and Freda’s proposal for, 32–33, 156, 201; childless, idea of, 156; classified ads for, 113; same-sex, as insane, 154–156, 167; same-sex, example of, 157; social expectations of, 30, 50–51, 154–156, 167
masturbation, 182
McDowell, Calvin, 129–130
McGalloway (colonel), 168
medical experts: history of same-sex opinion of, 180–184; journals, 141, 180, 209; media influence on, 138, 174; phrenology and physiognomy, 211; testimonies by, 153–157
melancholia, 141–142, 209
Memphis: crime rate in, 203; Curve district of, 129–131; jobs for women, 31; new
spaper industry in, 72; society girls of, 73–74
men: jury rights of, 99; media depiction of, 94–96; power of, 31, 70; race and sexual assault by, 131–133; women impersonating, 26, 35, 157
menstruation, vicarious, 145–146, 210
Mitchell, Addie, 145–147, 148, 212
Mitchell, Alice. See also Alice and Freda; murder, of Freda Ward: alter egos of, 56, 58, 61–63, 187–190, 191, 215; arraignment of, 92–94; arrest of, 68; childhood of, 140–141; at dances, 150–151, 175, 176; death of, 176–178; death threats by, 27–29, 37, 42–44, 165; delusions of, 22, 55–56, 60, 62; depression of, 57–59, 149; Golddust visits by, 27, 48; grave visit by, 178–179; habeas corpus appearance by, 110; Hypothetical Case of, 139–143, 152, 209; indictment of, 86; in jail, 70, 127–129; jealousy of, 27–29, 38–45, 55, 59–60, 159–160, 163–165; letter from Ada to, 51–53; letters from, as Freda alter ego, 56–57, 187–190, 191–193, 215; letters from Freda to, 21, 39, 62, 185–186; letters to Freda from, 33, 41–43, 54–56, 61–63, 185; male disguise plan of, 35–36, 182; masculinization of, 74–77, 82; murder of Freda by, 22–24, 102–103, 117–118, 121–123; proposal by, 32–33, 156, 201; stalking Freda by, 19–23, 38–39, 60–64; suicide plans of, 27–29, 103, 177; testimony of, 161–168, 211; in Western Hospital for the Insane, 172–176
Mitchell, Frank, 140, 147
Mitchell, George: daughter’s case actions of, 68, 70, 174; death of, 212; media depiction of, 95; razor from, 58–59; wife’s depression actions of, 70, 141–143, 144–145, 209
Mitchell, Isabella: death of, 212n129; depression of, 70, 97, 141–143, 144–145, 209; letter from Ada to, 52–53; media depiction of, 97
Mitchell, Mattie, 145–147, 212
Mitchell, Robert, 52, 147
Mitchell-Ward case: arraignment before, 91–94; courthouse expansion for, 105–106; defense of Alice Mitchell in, 138–157, 167–168, 204; defense of Lillie Johnson in, 112–113, 117–119; erotomania diagnosis for, 79–80, 157; Franklin’s testimony in, 149; habeas corpus of Lillie Johnson in, 104–126; historic importance of, 100–101, 133–134, 180–184, 213; Hypothetical Case for, 139–143, 152, 209; Johnson’s, Lillie, testimony in, 121–123; jury for, 99; love letters in, 110–111, 206; media depiction of fathers in, 94–96; media depiction of Lillie Johnson in, 94; media depiction of mothers in, 97–98; medical experts on, 153–157, 180–184; postponement of, 105–106; prosecution of Alice Mitchell in, 81, 147, 150–153, 157–160, 161–167; prosecution of Lillie Johnson in, 113–116, 119, 123–125; as public entertainment, 91–92, 104–105; racism in, 99, 106–107; sex rhetoric in, 151–152, 154, 157–158; sources, 14, 200; testimony of Alice Mitchell in, 161–168, 211; testimony of Jo Ward in, 85, 116–120, 117–118; verdict for Alice Mitchell, 168; verdict for Lillie Johnson, 105, 126; women spectators in, 107–109
Moss, Thomas, 129–131
Mundinger, Charles, Mrs., 148
murder: of Borden family, 202; of Carmack, 206; crimes of passion, 111, 149, 158, 163; lynching, 129–131, 133; as masculine act, 101
murder, of Freda Ward. See also Mitchell-Ward case: arraignment for, 91–94; arrest for, 68, 85; gun idea for, 42–44; indictment for, 86; media coverage of, 70–82; modern view of, 78–80; poison idea for, 27–29; razor for, 58–59, 61, 103; scene of, 22–24, 102–103, 117–118, 121–123
newspaper industry. See media
Ora Lee, 21, 22, 83
Patterson, George, 88
Patterson, Josiah, 112
Patterson, Malcolm Rice: background of, 112, 206; on death of Alice Mitchell, 176–177; defense of Lillie Johnson by, 118–119
People’s Grocery lynching, 129–131
Perry, John, 76–77
Peters, George: background of, 111; prosecution of Alice Mitchell by, 81, 147, 157–158, 161–167; prosecution of Lillie Johnson by, 116, 119, 123–125
Peters, George, Sr., 111
phrenology, 211
physician testimonies, 141–143
physiognomy, 211
pistols, 42–44
pleas, arraignment for, 91–94. See also insanity defense
Pleasant Hour Social Club, 150–151
poison, 27–29
pregnancy, insanity of, 70, 141–143, 144–145
Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 50–51
proposal, 32–33, 156, 201
Purnell, Christina, 21, 23, 158
Putin, Vladimir, 214
racism: Civil Rights Act of 1875 and, 99, 205; in jury rights, 99; lynching, 129–131, 133; in media, 74, 85–86; in segregation laws, 106–107; in sexual assault, 131–133; in voting rights, 206; Wells’ activism against, 131–133
razor, as murder weapon, 58–59, 61, 103
Ritchie, Rob, 56
Rosa Lee, 21, 60
Roselle, Ashley: testimony of, 159–160; testimony of Alice Mitchell on, 163–165; Ward’s, Freda, relationship with, 38–43, 55, 59–60, 159–160, 163–165
Russia, same-sex love in, 214
Sale, E. P., 154, 157, 158
same-sex love: chumming versus, 25, 34; in Europe, 26; examples, 157, 214; French novels on, 26, 181; as hereditary, 183–184, 214; love sickness in, 149; marriage, as insane, 154–156, 167; marriage, example of, 157; masturbation and, 182; medical opinion history on, 180–184; modern bans on, 214; in Russia, 214; sexual love in, 151–152, 154, 157–158 unnaturalness of, 74–76, 80
Sapphic Slashers (Duggan), 208
Sardou, Victorien, 207
segregation laws, 106–107
sex: assault, race and, 131–133; castration and, 181; masturbation, 182; as Mitchell-Ward case topic, 151–152, 154, 157–158; as taboo topic, 79–80
Sexual Inversion (Ellis), 183–184, 214
Sim, Frank L., 141, 154, 180, 211
sleepovers, 27, 48
social expectations. See men; women
society girls, 73–74
sports, 140, 147
stalking, 19–23, 38–39, 60–64
Stanley & Hintons, 83–84
Stewart, Henry, 129–130
suicide plans, 27–29, 103, 177
Tennessee Guard, 131
theater: Alice and Freda’s story in, 207, 213; cross-dressing in, 26, 35, 157
La Tosca, 207
trials. See habeas corpus; Mitchell-Ward case
Turner, B. F., 154, 156, 157
undertakers, 83–84
Van Dorn, Earl, 111
vicarious menstruation, 145–146, 210
Virg (of Carbon, Tx.), 192–193
Volkmar, Ada, 27; Alice and Freda discovered by, 47–53; media depiction of, 97–98; testimony of, 158
Volkmar, William, 189; on eloping night, 51; testimony of, 150
voting rights, 100, 206
Ward, Freda. See also Alice and Freda; murder, of Freda Ward: death threats to, 27–29, 37, 42–44, 165; deceit and escape of, 21, 62–64; on eloping night, 47, 51; exhibitionism by, 25, 34, 48; family background on, 27, 73, 95–96, 97; flirtatiousness of, 27–28, 38–41, 45; funeral for, 88–90; grave of, 178–179; letters from Alice to, 33, 41–43, 54–56, 61–63, 185; letters from Alice writing as, 56–57, 187–190, 191–193, 215; letters to Alice from, 21, 39, 62, 185–186; letters to Ashley from, 40, 165; poisoning, 27–29; proposal to, 32–33, 156, 201; with Roselle, 38–43, 55, 59–60, 159–160, 163–165; silence of, 55–61; stalking, 19–23, 38–39, 60–64; at undertakers, 83–84
Ward, Jo: letter to Lillie from, 116; media depiction of, 98; at murder, 23–24, 117–118; testimony of, 85, 116–120, 117–118
Ward, Thomas, 27, 84, 95–96
Ward, Wander (alter ego), 190–191
Wells, Ida B., 131–133
Wilde, Oscar, 80
women: activists, 131–133; chumming by, 26; courtroom spectators, 107–109; depression, postpartum, in, 70, 142–143, 209; erotomania diagnosis of, 79–80, 157; female hysteria diagnosis of, 112–113; Higbee’s cardinal virtues of, 30; household role of, 30–31, 70, 95; jobs for, 31; jury rights of, 100; male impersonations by, 26, 35, 157; marria
ge expectations, 30, 50–51, 154–156, 158, 167; media depiction of, 97–98; sexual assault and race of, 131–133; voting rights of, 100; weak stereotype, 70, 97–98, 112–113, 214
Wright, Luke: access tactics of, 110; background of, 68–69; DuBose prosecuted by, 98–99; insanity defense by, 70–73, 79, 138–143, 151; on testimony of Alice Mitchell, 167–168
I CARRIED ALICE AND FREDA’S STORY AROUND with me for years, but I didn’t find a good home for it until Nicole Cliffe and Mallory Ortberg launched The Toast and made me their history columnist. They gave me a space to write the kinds of stories I’ve always wanted to— including Alice and Freda’s heartbreaking saga.
Before the essay was published, I described it to Daniel Harmon, an editor who understood my desire to tell the girls’ story in a very specific way. I’m grateful to the entire Pulp/HMH team, including Hallie Warshaw, Jo Beaton, and Ann Edwards, and Adam Grano, who designed the gorgeous cover. Thanks to interior designer Dasha Trojanek, copyeditor Pam McElroy, and Southern publicist Rich Rennicks.
I have long admired the work of Sally Klann, the book’s illustrator, and she greatly exceeded my expectations. Sally read early drafts and listened to me describe no less than a hundred ideas, all of which she perfectly translated into stunning, nuanced visuals. Historian Mary Klann, Sally’s sister, was my first reader in grad school, and did not escape that fate on this book.
I’m generally lucky when it comes to smart friends who mistakenly offer to read early drafts. After putting in long hours with her authors, Emily Clement made herself available to me for small moments of panic and big picture edits. The wonderful Daniel Jacobson, also an editor, painstakingly reviewed every single line, and managed to do so with the same kindness he’s shown me for a decade. No one understood what I wanted to accomplish here more than Avi Steinberg, and he made crucial cuts, organizational suggestions, and line edits.
I spent a few weeks scouring archives in Tennessee, fueled by biscuits and aided by local historians, curators, and specialists. I’m particularly grateful to Wayne Dowdy at the Memphis Public Library, who provided research support long after I left the state, and the excellent archivists at the Shelby County Register/Archives, including Frank Stewart. I was lucky enough to find a random link to Audrey May of the MPL and the Memphis Gay and Lesbian Community Center early on. She put me in touch with, among others, Vincent Astor, who generously shared his research and gave me a personal tour of Elmwood Cemetery, as well as the Memphis waterfront. Dr. John Harkins was kind enough to answer my rapid-fire local history questions, and share his own collection, which included a catalog from the Higbee School.