ancient pottery could be seen exposed in the Nile bank (Sayce and Clarke 1905:263; Clarke 1921:56).
The location of the large, late Predynastic (Naqada III) cemetery (Hendrickx 1993)— which would have lain outside the settlement—indicates that the early town lay in the south-west corner of the later, rectangular enclosure wall. The limited amount of archaeological material excavated within the curved double walls seems to confirm this area as the heart of the ancient town. The only architectural evidence consists of small mudbrick constructions. The floor of one chamber was covered with sherds of Early Dynastic pottery, and a large jar had been sunk into the ground. Numerous flint objects found here provide further evidence of early occupation (Vermeersch 1970). Similar material (pottery, flints, fragments of stone vessels), some of it dating back to the Predynastic period, was excavated at the beginning of the twentieth century in a trench to the east of the temples (Sayce and Clarke 1905:259). This location would correspond to the edge of the probable ancient town-site. Unfortunately, more extensive evidence of the early occupation at Elkab is unlikely to be forthcoming, since it appears that much of the site was thoroughly
Figure 9.1 Elkab. Confirmed Early Dynastic features within and around the later rectangular town wall (after Hendrickx and Huyge
1989:10–14, pl. II). Key: 1 possible location of a Predynastic cemetery; 2 building of Khasekhemwy; 3 Early Dynastic tombs; 4 late Predynastic cemetery; 5 double wall, enclosing the early town; 6 excavated areas of the Early Dynastic town.
levelled at the end of the Early Dynastic period or perhaps during the Old Kingdom, for the construction or reconstruction of the temple compound (Vermeersch 1970:33; Vandersleyen 1971:35). Moreover, a substantial town mound within the curved double walls, noted in an early century account, was removed by sebakh diggers in the nineteenth century (Clarke 1921:56–61). On the spot where the temple now stands, excavations failed to reveal any domestic settlement material later than the Early Dynastic period. This fact suggests that the site was regarded as holy from an early period (Sayce and Clarke 1905:262). However, domestic vessels (‘ash-jars’) of Predynastic date indicate that the site was probably not sanctified until after the formation of the Egyptian state (Sayce and Clarke 1905:262–3).
There is only limited datable evidence of Early Dynastic activity in the Elkab region. One of the stairway tombs (No. 6) excavated at the end of the nineteenth century just outside the north-western side of the Great Wall contained a rectangular stone palette, characteristic of the early First Dynasty (Quibell 1898). From the end of the First Dynasty there are two rock-cut inscriptions of Qaa (Huyge 1984). Both show the royal serekh facing a figure of the local goddess Nekhbet. One inscription is carved on a rock in the Wadi Hellal, the other at a site some 12 kilometres downstream. A small steatite plaque bearing the name of the Second Dynasty king Nebra was reported to have come from another of the stairway tombs (No. 2) (Quibell 1898b). The existence of a stone building of the late Second Dynasty, just inside the northern corner of the Great Wall, is indicated by a number of granite blocks, one of which (now lost) bore the name of Khasekhemwy.
There are several cemeteries of the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods at Elkab. The principal Predynastic cemetery, dating to the period of state formation (Naqada III), lies within the Great Wall and seems to have formed part of a more extensive cemetery, the original extent of which is difficult to establish (Hendrickx and Huyge 1989:12 (24); Hendrickx 1993). Tombs of the Early Dynastic period are somewhat better represented at Elkab. In particular, the existence of several high-status burials indicates the early importance of the town. A group of small mastabas dating to the Second and Third Dynasties was excavated adjacent to the inside north-western edge of the Great Wall, close to the granite blocks of Khasekhemwy (Sayce and Clarke 1905:239; Hendrickx and Huyge 1989:12). Although thoroughly plundered, the burials seem to have belonged to a larger cemetery comprising also some early Old Kingdom mastabas (Sayce and Clarke 1905:242). There are sketchy reports of further Early Dynastic graves having been uncovered in the elevated part of the enclosure north of the temple; and there were apparently a few early burials within the mainly Middle Kingdom cemetery to the east of the temple area (Sayce and Clarke 1905:246).
Hierakonpolis
Excavations at Hierakonpolis since the end of the nineteenth century have revealed much of the site’s history. Towards the end of the Predynastic period (Naqada III), the newly founded town of Nekhen, situated at the edge of the cultivation, swiftly became the main regional centre of population, replacing the more scattered desert settlements characteristic of the earlier Predynastic period (Hoffman 1976:41; Kemp 1977:198). Previously extensive, these had declined to an area of just 2 hectares by the beginning of the Early Dynastic period (Hoffman et al. 1986). This marked contraction of settlement seems to have been part of a more widespread phenomenon associated with the rise of urbanism (Kemp 1989). The town of Nekhen had not, however, been founded on a virgin site: deep soundings indicate an unbroken sequence of settlement material, dating back to the Badarian period, beneath the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom town (Hoffman 1987). Moreover, Predynastic burials were found within the town enclosure (Quibell and Green 1902:2).
At the beginning of the Early Dynastic period, with the inauguration of the new capital city at Memphis, Hierakonpolis was relegated to the status of a mere provincial capital. Nevertheless, the close involvement of Hierakonpolis in the process of state formation and the strong ideological links between the local god Horus and kingship ensured the town’s continuing importance. This is most spectacularly attested by the excavation of part of a large building, interpreted as a royal palace, in the centre of Nekhen (Weeks 1971–2). A monumental gateway, decorated with elaborate niches, provides the first example of this distinctive architectural style in a secular building, and seems to confirm the validity of the term ‘palace facade’. The Early Dynastic date of the gateway is confirmed by the fact that Old Kingdom houses were built over it (B.Adams 1977). Three seal-impressions found within the gateway have been dated to the late Second or early Third Dynasty, although the elaborate nature of the niche decoration suggests a First Dynasty date. Behind the gateway lay an assortment of residential and administrative buildings, including a number of store-rooms, although it is not certain if these constructions are contemporary with the palace itself. Reasons for identifying the gateway as part of a palace include its location within an urban area, its monumental size, and the elaborate nature of its external appearance (Weeks 1971–2:31; see O’Connor 1992 for an alternative interpretation).
At some point during the Early Dynastic period or early Old Kingdom, a rectangular town wall was built around Nekhen (Kemp 1989:39). Comparisons with other sites support an Early Dynastic date for the wall, whilst clay-sealings of Netjerikhet and Khaba found within some of the houses indicate Early Dynastic occupation. Within the town enclosure, the buildings were tightly packed and the town must have had a high population density. It also seems to have been characterised by functional patterning, with different quarters for different activities. This indicates a degree of town planning, whether conscious or unconscious (Bietak 1979:108). Although the walled town of Nekhen became the main centre of population from the beginning of the Early Dynastic period—a potsherd incised with the serekh of Narmer was found within the town area (Garstang 1907: pl. 3.1; B.Adams 1995:124)—some settlement endured in two ‘outliers’ until the early Old Kingdom (B.Adams 1977). Hierakonpolis remained an important town into the early Old Kingdom, but declined thereafter following the establishment of Edfu as the new regional population centre (Kemp 1989).
In contrast to the abundant settlement remains, graves of the Early Dynastic period are comparatively few at Hierakonpolis. This serves as a useful caveat, highlighting the disparity which can exist between settlement and cemetery evidence. The ‘Fort Cemetery’, which seems to have served as the burial ground for the majority of the local population during the later Predynastic period (B
.Adams 1987), probably continued in this role during the First Dynasty. Surface surveys of the areas adjacent to the ‘Fort’ ‘have indicated that the cemetery extended well beyond the walls’ (B.Adams 1987:177), and it is to the north of the structure that the Early Dynastic burials are probably located. Some Early Dynastic mastabas were in fact excavated in this area at the turn of the nineteenth century (Quibell and Green 1902:25–6, pl. LXXIII; R.Friedman 1994:386).
Edfu
Although there is no incontrovertible evidence of Early Dynastic occupation at Edfu, a number of oval graves, completely plundered but none the less thought to be early, were excavated in the 1930s (Bruyère 1937; Kemp 1977). Edfu occupies a natural elevation within the floodplain, and one might expect such an attractive location to have enticed settlers from an early period (Kemp 1977). The earliest pottery from the town enclosure appears to date to the late Old Kingdom. However, the type of construction seen in the inner of the two concentric enclosure walls – ‘two near-vertical layers of brick’—recalls the stone architecture of the Third Dynasty step pyramids (Kemp 1977). Hence, it is possible that the early walled town at Edfu was already established by the beginning of the Old Kingdom. Similar layering of brick walls is found at Elephantine and Elkab (Kemp, personal communication), perhaps confirming a Third Dynasty date for Edfu.
Gebelein
Like the modern Arabic name, the ancient name of Gebelein, Inrty, reflects the topography of the site: two hills, rising parallel to the Nile. The smaller, southern hill was the location for the temple of Hathor which was founded before the end of the Second Dynasty. The larger, northern hill seems to have been the site of the main settlement, with the adjacent desert serving as a burial ground (Donadoni Roveri 1990:23, fig. 3.1).
There are strong indications that Gebelein was an important site during the Predynastic period, and that it remained so into the Early Dynastic period. A rich and extensive cemetery spanning the whole of the Predynastic period was situated in the desert to the north of the settlement. The wealth of the cemetery made it the focus of grave-robbing at the end of the nineteenth century, but subsequent, sporadic excavations yielded numerous artefacts. One of the graves contained a unique painted cloth dating to Naqada II (Galassi 1955:5–42). The presence of such a prestige artefact suggests that late Predynastic Gebelein was a flourishing community with advanced social stratification. A layer of ash on the northern spurs of the northern hill represents the only remains of the Predynastic settlement (Donadoni Roveri 1990:23).
Even though no Early Dynastic settlement remains have been excavated at Gebelein, the continued existence of the community is indicated by the cemeteries in the vicinity. An Early Dynastic necropolis covered the ash layer on the northern hill. In the earlier burials, bodies were wrapped in mats or baskets; later graves contained pottery or
wooden coffins. Several rectangular graves, dated to the First Dynasty, indicate the presence of another Early Dynastic cemetery nearby, but it has never been excavated (Donadoni Roveri 1990:25).
Armant
There is limited evidence for a settlement at Armant in the late Predynastic period (Mond and Myers 1940:1). The earliest material found in situ was some Naqada III pottery, although it is possible that the town was founded somewhat earlier. A temple foundation deposit dating to the very end of the Predynastic period or early First Dynasty was excavated in the west forecourt of the later temple. The only evidence for Early Dynastic habitation was some fragments of pottery and stone vessels (Mond and Myers 1940:2). As at Abydos and Hierakonpolis, small villages on the desert edge at Armant seem not to have survived into the Early Dynastic period. It is likely that their populations were absorbed into a new town in late Predynastic times (Kemp 1977:192; cf. Ginter and Kozlowski 1994).
Naqada
A similar phenomenon is attested at Naqada, where the small communities in the immediate vicinity of the larger town were apparently abandoned during the period of state formation (Lamberg-Karlovsky and Sabloff 1979:132). At the same time, the surviving settlement (the South Town), its population probably swelled by an influx from the surrounding villages, was enclosed by thick mudbrick walls (Kemp 1977:198, 1989:35–6; Lamberg-Karlovsky and Sabloff 1979:132). The South Town remained the main regional focus of population throughout the late Predynastic period and into the First Dynasty, probably serving an administrative and perhaps symbolic function (R.Friedman 1994:287, 322).
Until recently, it was generally accepted that the settlement had been abandoned at the beginning of the First Dynasty in favour of Nubt, the historic town located a little to the north. However, an Italian expedition to Naqada in the 1980s found a particularly high frequency of ‘Late’-ware pottery in the northern part of the South Town. The preliminary results were tested by means of a systematic collection of surface sherds over the entire site. This survey confirmed the hypothesis that the northern and north-western parts of the South Town continued to be inhabited into the Early Dynastic period (Barocas et al. 1989:300). Moreover, the internal development of the settlement has been traced by looking at the distribution of ceramic types. It seems that the whole area was occupied during the Naqada II period, the town gradually shifting from the western side of the site towards the edge of the cultivation during the course of the Predynastic period. The inhabited area shrunk to the north and northwestern parts of the town during the period of state formation. There is also some evidence for later dynastic occupation in the south- eastern part of the site, although the main centre of population in the region in dynastic times was the town of Nubt (Barocas et al. 1989:300).
Mud seal-impressions provided further evidence for Early Dynastic occupation of the South Town and attest continuing activity at Naqada on the part of the royal administration after the unification of Egypt. Two sealings show rows of animals,
characteristic of the reign of Aha (Dreyer, personal communication). The Italian excavations discovered some 300 clay-sealings in total, some of them used to close jars, others still attached to pieces of string or wooden pegs. Most of the seals have been interpreted as door-locking devices (R.Friedman 1994:313). The combination of substantial mudbrick architecture and doors that were closed with seals suggests the existence of an administrative centre at Naqada South Town (R.Friedman 1994:37). The botanical remains from the site support this interpretation, indicating that substantial grain processing took place in the town (R.Friedman 1994:322). The South Town may therefore have served as a centralised food storage facility as well as an administrative centre for the surrounding region. The importance of Naqada in the reign of Aha is further emphasised by the presence of two royal tombs to the south of the settlement (Kemp 1967:24–5, footnote), one of them probably constructed for Aha’s mother Neith- hotep. The élite tombs were apparently accompanied by one or more Early Dynastic cemeteries (R.Friedman 1994:286–7), probably accommodating the burials of the local First Dynasty officials. Preparations for the burial of Neith-hotep no doubt involved agents of the central government, and the sealings from the South Town certainly suggest official involvement at Naqada.
Dendera
Although the earliest settlement material from Dendera dates to the Old Kingdom, the presence of a few Early Dynastic burials in the adjacent cemetery suggests that the town may have already been in existence at an earlier period. A group of fifteen Early Dynastic burials was excavated at the centre of the main cemetery, due south of the Temple of Hathor. Although several of the graves were devoid of any objects, many others contained pottery vessels, and two burials in particular yielded material which is undoubtedly Early Dynastic (Fischer 1968; Slater 1974). The small number of Early Dynastic burials at Dendera probably indicates that the town itself was small at this period. However, it is possible that the Early Dynastic cemetery was originally somewhat more extensive, since the excavated tombs were located in a wadi, and other graves in the vicinity may have been washed away. Moreover, it has been suggested that two mastabas (numbers 5:981 and 8:111) adjacent to an early Ol
d Kingdom tomb group may in fact be Early Dynastic. One of them was found to contain a cylinder vessel fragment with an incised decorative band below the rim, characteristic of the Early Dynastic period (Slater 1974).
Abydos
The early town at Abydos, situated within the later temple enclosure of Osiris, was mapped and partially excavated at the beginning of the twentieth century (Garstang 1901: pl. XXXVII; Petrie 1902; Kemp 1968, 1989:77–9). Remains of walls and settlement debris were found beneath the present ground level on, and adjacent to, the surviving town mound (the Kom es-Sultan). In addition, the early town may have extended further to the south-west. Houses of the Early Dynastic period were excavated outside the area of the early temple; some contained seal-impressions which may be dated by their style to the First and Second Dynasties (Petrie 1903:31, pl. XVI.1–7, 8–11, 14). A nearby
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