To judge from the cemeteries at Naga ed-Deir, the population of This seems to have remained relatively stable throughout the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods. None the less, the changes in settlement and cemetery patterns which affected the region as a whole—like many other parts of Egypt—during the period of state formation may not have bypassed the regional capital entirely. Hence, towards the end of Naqada II, and for reasons which remain unclear, Naga ed-Deir was apparently abandoned in favour of an alternative burial site. Graves from the late Predynastic period (late Naqada II) and from the period of state formation (Naqada III/‘Dynasty 0’) are notable by their scarcity (cf. Brovarski 1982:300). It seems fairly certain that a substantial population remained in the area (despite arguments to the contrary [Patch 1991:309]), since Naga ed-Deir saw renewed use as a major cemetery in the Early Dynastic period and Old Kingdom.
With the advent of the Third Dynasty, the Abydos region lost the special role it had enjoyed as the ancestral home and burial place of the First and Second Dynasty kings. However, the local rulers—possibly the lineal descendants of the First Dynasty kings— evidently continued to exercise considerable authority at a regional level. The economic power of the Thinite governors, derived from their control of one of the most fertile and prosperous stretches of the Nile valley, was expressed in their funerary monuments: a series of huge mudbrick mastaba tombs was erected on the low desert at Beit Khallaf, to the west of This and directly opposite Naga ed-Deir. The scale of Beit Khallaf mastabas
K1 and K2, dated by seal-impressions to the reigns of Netjerikhet and Sanakht, is quite unparalleled at any other contemporary provincial site. Smaller mastabas, probably belonging to lesser officials of the regional administration, are located at the nearby cemetery of Reqaqna. The evidence from the Thinite area for the continuing strength of local identity after the foundation of the Egyptian state provides an important balance to the outward appearance of centralised control promoted by the royal court. The distribution of cemeteries in the Thinite area during the Early Dynastic period mirrors the picture in the Memphite region: the local élite were buried in tombs on the western desert edge, while the lesser officials and the majority of the local population were interred in a separate cemetery on the east bank of the Nile.
Settlement nucleation and the early town at Abydos
The temporary abandonment of the cemetery at Naga ed-Deir reflects the demographic changes which affected many parts of the country during the period of state formation. More striking evidence comes from the vicinity of Abydos itself. Many of the cemeteries close to Abydos – including es-Salmani (el-Sayed 1979) and Hawashim on the west bank, and Naga el-Mashayikh on the east bank—were abandoned at the end of the Predynastic period, indicating that a nucleation of settlement took place (Kemp 1977:189). This phenomenon seems to have had an impact even upon the previously stable communities of Mahasna and el-Amra. Both apparently suffered an irreversible decline in their fortunes at the beginning of the Early Dynastic period (Wilkinson 1993a:220–1). The foundation of the town at Abydos can be dated to Naqada III (c. 3150 BC) and was probably closely bound up with the process of state formation. The town is likely to have attracted the populations of scattered villages, lured by the economic and physical security which a town provided, as well as by potentially greater employment opportunities. The continued prosperity of the Abydos region in the Early Dynastic period is demonstrated at Abydos itself: the town expanded throughout the first six dynasties, and the temple seems to have undergone several rebuilding phases (cf. Kemp 1968:150).
THE BADARI REGION
In Middle Egypt, the wide alluvial plain on the east bank of the Nile is demarcated by the line of steep limestone cliffs which approach closest to the river near Matmar in the north and el-Etmania in the south (O’Connor 1972:91). Between these two points the cliffs recede, forming a large embayment. The fertile floodplain is considerably wider in this part of Nile valley than further south, giving the Badari region a high agricultural yield (Wilson 1955:217) and enabling it to support a relatively large population. However, the region possessed no other particular advantages. Certainly, it was not strategically located for either internal or external trade. This function was dominated by Asyut, to the north, which was situated at a constriction of the Nile valley, ideal for controlling riverine traffic (O’Connor 1972:91–2). The lack of access to trade routes may have been a major reason why the processes of social stratification and state formation did not progress as far or as fast in the Badari region as in some of the communities further south (Bard
1987:90–1). The nucleation of settlement seen in other regions of Egypt during the period of state formation is not apparent in the Badari region. Only in the Old Kingdom did a regional capital of any size develop at el-Etmania (O’Connor 1972), perhaps connected with the establishment of royal estates in the area (Jacquet-Gordon 1962:130–1).
The size and distribution of cemeteries in the Badari region (Holmes and Friedman 1989) suggest both a shift in the centre of population and a change in the settlement pattern at the end of the Predynastic period. Whilst the principal Predynastic settlements were located in the northern part of the region, in particular Matmar, Mostagedda and Hemamia (Brunton 1937, 1948), the Early Dynastic population seems to have been concentrated in the southern area between Hemamia and el-Etmania (O’Connor 1972:91). The abandonment of the settlement at Hemamia towards the end of the Naqada II period (Brunton and Caton-Thompson 1928:78) probably reflects a more general settlement shift from the desert edge to the floodplain, perhaps connected with intensified basin irrigation (Kemp 1977:197). The burial rate for the Badari region in the Early Dynastic period, as reflected in the number of excavated graves, is extremely low, especially by comparison with the preceding Predynastic period (O’Connor 1972:86). It has been suggested that this reflects a low population (O’Connor 1972:92–3), but other factors may be responsible. It is quite possible, for instance, that the number of recorded Early Dynastic burials in the Badari region does not accurately reflect the original mortuary population. Furthermore, evidence from the Memphite region indicates that the widespread encroachment of desert dunes towards the end of the Old Kingdom affected settlement on the west bank of the Nile (Jeffreys and Tavares 1994); if this phenomenon was repeated in Middle Egypt, it is likely that Predynastic and Early Dynastic settlements on the west bank—and perhaps their accompanying cemeteries – were abandoned in the face of the advancing dunes, and now lie buried several metres below the present ground surface. This could account for the apparent absence of early remains on the west bank from the entrance to the Fayum southwards to the Abydos region.
At Matmar, there is a continuous burial record from a period of some two millenniums, from Naqada I to the Old Kingdom (Brunton 1948:29–40). The process of state formation appears to have had little effect upon the community at Matmar. In all probability a small farming village without the network of trading contacts enjoyed by other centres, Matmar illustrates the remarkable stability of the rural Egyptian population over long periods of time. Whilst major centres of political and economic importance were clearly affected by changing circumstances, smaller settlements inhabited largely by subsistence farmers were less prone to national forces. The cemeteries at Mostagedda probably served a village which was inhabited continuously throughout the Predynastic Period (Brunton 1937). The burial record does not extend into the Early Dynastic period, but it is possible that some ancient cemeteries have been destroyed by modern building or grave-digging. In the Early Dynastic period the Badari region was characterised by a series of small settlements, reflecting its remoteness from the centres of economic and political power. The Second and Third Dynasty stairway tombs near Badari suggest that a local élite was able to benefit from the region’s agricultural wealth and general prosperity. However, the region as a whole remained insignificant in national terms.
THE MEMPHITE REGION
The apex of the Nile Delta emerges as a crucial region fr
om the very beginning of Egyptian history (Figure 10.3). It was here that the early kings of a united Egypt chose to establish their capital city, the centre of the administrative apparatus created to supervise and control the new nation state. However, Memphis was certainly not founded in a virgin location, nor was the choice of location arbitrary. Three localities displaying the ceramic assemblage characteristic of the Predynastic northern tradition have been excavated along a short stretch of the Nile’s east bank, perhaps indicating that there was a significant density of settlement in the Memphite region in the early Predynastic period.
The sudden demise of Maadi in the latter part of Naqada II raises important questions; the most plausible explanation would appear to lie in the changes in climate, ecology and subsistence patterns which seem to have occurred throughout Egypt at this time. The desiccation of the desert savannahs following the end of the Neolithic subpluvial was accompanied by a change to agriculture as the principal subsistence base. The decline in the importance of herding and the deterioration of the previously advantageous desert- edge ecosystem seem to have led to the widespread relocation of settlements to the floodplain. The alluvium now offered the most attractive environment for human activity, which was based almost entirely on agriculture. Maadi, situated on the low desert with easy access to the now arid pasturages, was no longer an attractive location for a local population of farmers. It is likely that this population moved to a new settlement in the floodplain, and the site later occupied by the city of Memphis would be an obvious candidate.
At the beginning of the Early Dynastic period incipient urbanism – and in particular the establishment of Memphis as the national capital – seems to have had a major impact on the smaller, surrounding settlements. The growth of Memphis as the dominant population centre of the region, and changes in local topography—caused by the eastward movement of the Nile channel and the rising height of the river’s floodplain – emerge as the major factors affecting settlement and cemetery distribution in the Memphis region during the Early Dynastic period.
Figure 10.3 Map of the Memphite region showing sites mentioned in the text (after Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:161, fig. 1).
The early city of Memphis
It would not be surprising if future excavations revealed that the city of Memphis had indeed come into existence during the late Naqada II period. Isolated stone palettes found in the vicinity of Abusir (Kaiser 1964:106–7) strongly suggest a late Predynastic presence and, as we have seen in Chapter 9, the earliest graves at Helwan pre-date the beginning of the First Dynasty, the traditional date for the foundation of Memphis.
A strategic location
The choice of Memphis by Egypt’s first kings as their new national capital reflects the site’s strategic importance. First, and most obvious, the apex of the Delta was a politically opportune location for the state’s administrative centre, standing at the ‘balance of the Two Lands’ (a later appellation for Memphis) and offering ready access to both parts of the country. The older, Predynastic centres of power, This and Hierakonpolis, were too remote from the vast expanse of the Delta which had been incorporated into the unified state. Only a city within easy reach of both the Nile valley to the south and the more spread out, difficult terrain to the north could provide the necessary political control that the rulers of Early Dynastic Egypt required.
Second, the region of Memphis must have served as an important node for transport and communications, even before the unification of Egypt. The region probably acted as a conduit for much, if not all, of the riverine trade between northern and southern Egypt. Moreover, commodities (such as wine, precious oils and metals) imported from the Near East by the royal courts of Predynastic Upper Egypt would have been channelled through the Memphite region on their way south. In short, therefore, the site of Memphis offered the rulers of the Early Dynastic period an ideal location for controlling internal trade within their realm, an essential requirement for a state-directed, redistributive economy. Equally important for the national administration was the ability to control communications within Egypt. The Nile provided the easiest and quickest artery of communication, and the national capital was, again, ideally located in this respect. Recent geological surveys of the Memphite region have revealed much about its topography in ancient times. It appears that the location of Memphis may have been even more advantageous for controlling trade, transport and communications than was previously appreciated. Surveys and drill cores have shown that the level of the Nile floodplain has steadily risen over the last five millenniums (Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:157–8). When the floodplain was much lower, as it would have been in Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the outwash fans of the Wadi Hof and Wadi Digla would have been much more prominent features on the east bank. The fan associated with the Wadi Hof extended a significant way into the Nile floodplain, forming a constriction in the vicinity of Memphis. The valley may have narrowed at this point to a mere 3 kilometres (Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:158), making it the ideal place for controlling river traffic.
Third, the Memphite region seems to have been favourably located for the control not only of riverine trade, but also of desert trade routes (cf. Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:158). The two outwash fans already mentioned gave access to extensive wadi systems of the eastern desert. In Predynastic times, the Wadi Digla may have served as a trade route between the Memphite region and the Near East, to judge from the unusual concentration of foreign artefacts found in the Predynastic settlement of Maadi. Access to, and control of, trade routes between Egypt and the Near East seems to have been a preoccupation of Egypt’s rulers during the period of state formation. The desire to monopolise foreign trade may have been one of the primary factors behind the political unification of Egypt. The foundation of the national capital at the junction of an important trade route with the Nile valley is not likely to have been accidental. Moreover, the Wadis Hof and Digla provided the Memphite region with accessible desert pasturage. As we have already seen in the cases of Hierakonpolis and Elkab, the combination of desert pasturage and alluvial arable land in the same area was a particularly attractive one for early settlement; this
combination no doubt contributed to the prosperity of the Memphite region from early Predynastic times.
The settlement and cemeteries of Memphis in the Early Dynastic period
The extensive Early Dynastic cemeteries of North Saqqara/Abusir (on the west bank) and Helwan/el-Maasara (on the east bank) are eloquent testimony to the size of early Memphis and to the wealth of its highest officials. The élite mastabas strung out along the edge of the escarpment at North Saqqara are impressive funerary constructions (Emery 1949, 1954, 1958). A cemetery of poorer graves was excavated by Bonnet (1928) a little to the north, near the modern village of Abusir, and more recent investigations by the Egyptian Antiquities Organisation have uncovered further Early Dynastic graves in this area (Leclant and Clerc 1992:242, 1993:200, 1994:376). It is now clear that both cemetery areas in fact comprise a single, large burial ground which served the early city of Memphis. Over on the east bank of the river, and directly opposite the élite cemetery of North Saqqara, the huge necropolis of Helwan (more precisely, el-Maasara) represents the largest Early Dynastic burial ground anywhere in Egypt (Saad 1947, 1951; Wilkinson 1996a). Helwan clearly served as the capital’s second cemetery during the first three dynasties. The sheer number of burials indicates a considerable Early Dynastic population, including a large administrative class.
Drill cores taken by the Egypt Exploration Society’s Survey of Memphis have revealed deposits of Early Dynastic material concentrated in a band running along the base of the North Saqqara escarpment (Giddy and Jeffreys 1991). Here, it seems, was the core of the early city, and such a location fits well with the distribution of cemeteries in the vicinity: the Early Dynastic city would have stood directly between its two principal cemeteries, North Saqqara and Helwan. The inhabited area also seems to have spread northwards, occupying an area close to the mo
dern village of Abusir. This probably reflects the location of the Nile channel in ancient times, which evidently flowed quite close to the edge of the Saqqara escarpment, providing only a thin strip of land on its western bank for cultivation and settlement (Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:155–7). Hence, the early city of Memphis would have extended as a ribbon development along the river’s edge, and evidently in a northerly direction. Towards the end of the Third Dynasty, the eastward progression of the river channel and the steady rise in the height of the floodplain seem to have caused the centre of population to shift southwards. The Abusir Wadi continued to serve as a burial ground, but the main access route to the necropolis seems to have been further south, and entered from the plateau from the east (Jeffreys and Tavares 1994:159). The élite cemetery of North Saqqara, so closely linked to the early city, was abandoned, and high-status burials were constructed further south, closer to the Step Pyramid enclosure of Netjerikhet.
The foundation and growth of Memphis: regional effects
The foundation of Memphis, and its growth to become the largest concentration of population and employment in the region, might be expected to have had profound effects upon the demography of the surrounding area. However, the degree to which these developments affected individual communities seems to have depended very much
Early Dynastic Egypt Page 49