Marcus Messallinus, who was the governor of Illyricum when the Great Illyrian Revolt erupted, became a lacky for Tiberius when he gained the throne. It was Messallinus who suggested to the emperor that the soldiers ought to swear an annual oath of loyalty to him. His name is vacant for much of the historical records, but he appears to have been eager to please the emperor at every opportunity, likely fearing being a victim of one of Sejanus’ treason trials. Marcus Messallinus died in 21 AD.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who had led Rome’s forces in Illyricum during the campaign of 8 AD, was appointed governor of Spain. Shortly before Caesar Augustus died in 14 AD, the dying emperor briefly considered Marcus Lepidus to be a worthy contender for the throne, but Lepidus was an opponent of the idea of monarchy and therefore Augustus decided not to give him the crown and instead declared Tiberius to be his successor. Marcus Lepidus remained one of Tiberius’ closest companions throughout his life. During the trial of Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, Lepidus acted as Piso’s attorney because he and Piso were distant relatives. In 21 AD, Emperor Tiberius offered to appoint Lepidus as governor of Africa in order to deal with the rebel warlord Tacfarinas, who was still threatening Rome’s grain supply in the region. However, Lepidus rejected the offer, claiming ill health. Even so, he continued to involve himself with politics for the duration of his life. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus died in 33 AD, regarded by the historian Tacitus as a model senator who acted bravely in the face of tyranny.28
Aulus Caecina Severus, the governor of Moesia who had distinguished himself during the Great Illyrian Revolt, would fight in Germania against Arminius and his rebels and would gain further glory upon the battlefield in that theatre. Once the legions pulled out of western Germania, Severus seems to have devoted his time exclusively to politics. The date of his death is not recorded.
Quintus Junius Blaesus, who had been the commanding officer of the legions stationed in Pannonia during the soldiers’ mutiny of 14 AD, became the governor of Africa in 21 AD, and it was he who defeated the North African rebel leader Tacfarinas. For this, he was awarded triumphal honours. However, both his career and his life would end soon. Blaesus was the uncle of Lucius Aelius Sejanus. In 31 AD, Sejanus was accused of treason and executed on Tiberius’ orders. Blaesus was put on trial due to his family connection with Sejanus, but before he could be sentenced he committed suicide. Both of Blaesus’ sons also committed suicide.
As for Illyria, it would continue to be part of the Roman Empire for the next 400 years and with little trouble among the people. The Great Illyrian Revolt of 6-9 AD was the largest, bloodiest and last of the Roman-Illyrian Wars. From then on, the western Balkans was firmly under imperial control. Gradually, native Illyrian culture faded away and was forgotten. During the third century AD, the empire was partitioned into four during the reign of Emperor Diocletian, who instituted the ‘tetrarchy’ system of government. In the fourth century AD, the empire was consolidated into western and eastern halves; Illyria was first apportioned to the Western Roman Empire, and then was transferred to the East. Despite attacks by Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Huns during the fourth and fifth centuries, the Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum, as it was known, remained under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire and when the Western Empire fell in 476 AD, Illyricum remained under Roman control as a province in the Byzantine Empire.
Endnotes
Chapter 1: The Illyrians
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5.David Binder, Fare Well, Illyria (Budapest, Central European University Press, 2013), x-xii.
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7.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 21-23; John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 94-97.
8.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
9.Pseudo-Scylax, Periplus. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Periplus_of_Pseudo-Scylax
10.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 69.
11.J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, eds, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (Chicago, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997), 288.
12.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 24-25.
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14.Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 12; Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, book 4, chapter 75; book 5, chapter 48; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, book 1, chapters 61-62; Virgil, The Aeneid, book 3, line 163.
15.Herodotus, Histories, book 7, chapters 73, 75.
16.Claude Brixhe, ‘Phrygian’, in Roger D. Woodard, ed., The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008), 72.
17.Pseudo-Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 5. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+3.5&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022
18.Appianus, The Roman History, book 9, appendix on the Illyrian Wars, chapter 2.
19.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 14-15, 24; John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 3.
20.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 5.
21.J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, eds, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (Chicago, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997), 288.
22.About Names. ‘Albanian names’. http://www.aboutnames.ch/albanian.htm Accessed on 9 February 2018.
23.E. Bosch et al, ‘Paternal and maternal lineages in the Balkans show a homogeneous landscape over linguistic barriers, except for the isolated Aromuns’ (31 May 2006) http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-1809.2005.00251.x/full
24.J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, eds, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (Chicago, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997), 289.
25.Anthropology.net. ‘A possible Homo erectus jaw from Sicevo Gorge, Serbia’ (29 June 2008). http://anthropology.net/2008/06/29/a-possible-homo-erectus-jaw-from-sicevo-gorge-serbia Accessed on 29 November 2015; Reuters. ‘Balkan caves, gorges were pre-Neanderthal haven’, by Ljilja Cvekic (27 June 2008). http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/06/27/us-balkans-prehistoric-idUSL2768278020080627 Accessed on 29 November 2015.
26.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 28.
27.Sarunas Milisauskas, ed., European Prehistory: A Survey (New York, Springer, 2002), 56; Science Daily. ‘40,000-year-old Skull Shows Both Modern Human And Neanderthal Traits’ (16 January 2007). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/01/070115215252.htm Accessed on 29 January 2018.
28.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 29-30; R. Bollongino, et al (2013). ‘2000 Years of Parallel Societies in Stone Age Central Europe’, Science, 342 (6157): 479-481. http://science.sciencemag.org/content/342/6157/479
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nacomp.net/lepenski-vir-archaeological-site-lepen-whirlpool Accessed on 19 February 2018; Radic, Zoran M. (2000). ‘Some puzzles about the Danubian and European Cultural History and Connections of Civilization Development with Climate, Water and Hydrology.’ http://medhycos.mpl.ird.fr/doc/zoran.htm
30.Radovanovic, Ivana (2000). ‘Houses and burials at Lepenski Vir’, European Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 3(3): 333-334.
31.Radovanovic, Ivana (2000). ‘Houses and burials at Lepenski Vir’, European Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 3(3): 336-337.
32.John Boardman et al, eds, The Cambridge Ancient History, volume III, part 1 – The Prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and Aegaean World, tenth to eighth centuries B.C. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003), 85; Marija Gimbutas, The Living Goddesses (Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001), 31; Radovanovic, Ivana (2000). ‘Houses and burials at Lepenski Vir’, European Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 3(3): 335; PanaComp. ‘Lepenski vir Archaeological site Lepen Whirlpool.’ http://www.panacomp.net/lepenski-vir-archaeological-site-lepen-whirlpool Accessed on 19 February 2018.
33.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 134-135; John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 29-30.
34.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 29-31.
35.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 31; John Boardman et al, eds, The Cambridge Ancient History, volume III, part 1 – The Prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and Aegaean World, tenth to eighth centuries B.C. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003), 86-87.
36.Marija Gimbutas, The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe, 6500–3500 BC: Myths and Cult Images. New and updated edition (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982), 24-25; Sarajevo School of Science andTechnology.‘Butmir Culture – General Facts’ (2006). http://dmc.ssst.edu.ba/ButmirNeolithicCulture/english/gfacts.html; Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission to Preserve National Monuments. ‘Prehistoric settlement of Butmir, the archaeological site’, by Dubravko Lovrenoviae (31 August 2004). http://www.kons.gov.ba/main.php?id_struct=50&lang=4&action=view&id=2500
37.Old European Culture. ‘Baba – earthen bread oven’ (21 December 2015). http://oldeuropeanculture.blogspot.com/2015/12/baba-earthen-bread-oven.html; Sarajevo School of Science and Technology. ‘Butmir Culture – General Facts’ (2006). http://dmc.ssst.edu.ba/ButmirNeolithicCulture/english/gfacts.html; Sarajevo School of Science and Technology. ‘Butmir Culture – Okolište’ (2006). http://dmc.ssst.edu.ba/ButmirNeolithicCulture/english/okonliste.html
38.Sarajevo School of Science and Technology. ‘Butmir Culture – General Facts’ (2006). http://dmc.ssst.edu.ba/ButmirNeolithicCulture/english/gfacts.html
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42.UCL Institute of Archaeology. ‘Serbian site may have hosted first coppermakers’ (23 September 2010). http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/calendar/articles/20100924
43.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 31-32.
44.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 32.
45.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 34-35.
46.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 223.
47.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 35-37, 224-225; A.F. Harding, European Societies in the Bronze Age (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), 191.
48. Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 35-36.
49.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 224.
50.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 39, 104.
51.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 38-39, 223.
52.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 41.
53.A.F. Harding, European Societies in the Bronze Age (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), 77, 100-102.
54.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 41, 44, 104-105.
55.Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree, eds, Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World, volume II (New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2004), 299.
56.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 223-224.
57.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 225.
58. Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 110-111.
59. Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 111.
60. Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 107, 108-109.
61. Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 107-108.
62. Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 108.
63. Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 108.
64.Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 3-4; John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 97.
65. Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 83.
66.J.J. Wilkes, Dalmatia (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), 3.
67. Aleksandar Stipcević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 108.
68.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
69.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 186.
70.Aleksandar Stipčević, The Illyrians: History and Culture. Translated by Stojana Culić Burton (Park Ridge, Noyes Press, 1977), 36, 107-108.
71.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 186-187.
72.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 95.
73.John Wilkes, The Illyrians (Cambridge, Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995), 187.
74.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
75.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5; Cassius Dio, The Roman History, book 49, chapter 35.
76.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
77.Appianus, The Roman History, book 9, appendix on the Illyrian Wars, chapter 18.
78.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
79.Appianus, The Roman History, book 9, appendix on the Illyrian Wars, chapter 18.
80.Sextus Julius Frontinus, Stratag
ems, book 2, chapter 5.
81.Cassius Dio, The Roman History, book 49, chapter 36.
82.Cassius Dio describes the Daesidiate tribe as being Dalmatian, not Pannonian.
83.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
84.Appianus, The Roman History, book 9, appendix on the Illyrian Wars, chapters 14, 18, 22.
85.Publius Annius Florus, Epitome, book 2, chapter 14.
86. Cassius Dio, The Roman History, book 49, chapter 36.
87. Cassius Dio, The Roman History, book 49, chapter 36.
88.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
89.According to Peter Kovacs, Segestica and Siscia were two separate towns, even though they were located close to each other. Segestica was the more noteworthy, located on the Pogorelec Peninsula, while Siscia was located on the left bank of the Sava River. This comes from Pliny’s description of the area, in which Segestica is stated to be on the right bank of the Kupa River and with Siscia situated upon the left bank. Strabo also states that Segestica and Siscia were two separate settlements, but both Strabo and Pliny lived and wrote their works during the reign of Tiberius. Peter Kovacs, A History of Pannonia during the Principate (Bonn, Dr Rudolf Habelt GMBH, 2014), 23; Rajka Makjanić, Siscia Pannonia Superior. BAR International Series 621 (Oxford, Hadrian Books, Ltd, 1995), 1.
90.Danijel Dzino, Illyricum in Roman Politics, 229 BC–AD 68 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010), 154.
91.Strabo, Geography, book 7, chapter 5.
92.Gaius Velleius Paterculus, The Roman History, book 2, chapter 110.
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