12 See Niall McCarthy, “The Countries Shutting Down the Internet the Most,” Forbes, August 28, 2018; Zeynep Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017).
13 Marshall Ganz, “What Is Public Narrative: Self, Us & Now,” working paper, Harvard University (2009).
14 Research has shown how important it is for movements to master framing, the process through which a social movement attributes meaning to an issue by promoting an interpretation of this issue that shifts how it is understood or perceived in the public consciousness. See Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment,” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 611–39; David A. Snow et al., “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation,” American Sociological Review 51, no. 4 (1986): 464–81; Paul Almeida, Social Movements: The Structure of Collective Mobilization (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2019).
15 Paul V. Martorana, Adam D. Galinsky, and Hayagreeva Rao, “From System Justification to System Condemnation: Antecedents of Attempts to Change Power Hierarchies,” in Status and Groups (Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd., 2005), 283–313; Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (New York: Verso, 2001).
16 Erika Summers-Effler, “The Micro Potential for Social Change: Emotion, Consciousness, and Social Movement Formation,” Sociological Theory 20, no. 1 (2002): 41–60; Michal Reifen Tagar, Christopher M. Federico, and Eran Halperin, “The Positive Effect of Negative Emotions in Protracted Conflict: The Case of Anger,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47, no. 1 (2011): 157–64; Marshall Ganz, “Leading Change: Leadership, Organization, and Social Movements,” in Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice, ed. Nitin Nohria and Rakesh Khurana (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2010). See also Paul Slovic, “ ‘If I Look at the Mass I Will Never Act’: Psychic Numbing and Genocide,” Judgment and Decision-Making 2, no. 2 (2007): 79–95.
17 Eliza Barclay and Brian Resnick, “How Big Was the Global Climate Strike? 4 Million People, Activists Estimate,” Vox, September 22, 2019, https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/9/20/20876143/climate-strike-2019-september-20-crowd-estimate.
18 Greta Thunberg, 24th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 24), Katowice, Poland, 2018.
19 Henry David Thoreau, A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-Slavery and Reform Papers, eds. Sophie Thoreau, William Ellery Channing, and Ralph Waldo Emerson (Ticknor and Fields, 1866).
20 George Hendrick, “The Influence of Thoreau’s ‘Civil Disobedience’ on Gandhi’s Satyagraha,” The New England Quarterly 29, no. 4 (1956): 462–71; Mark Engler and Paul Engler, This Is an Uprising (New York: Nation, 2017); Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (New York: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1973).
21 Erica Chenoweth and Maria J. Stephan, Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).
22 Chenoweth and Stephan, Why Civil Resistance Works.
23 “Google Trends Interest in ‘Climate Change’ and ‘Climate Crisis’ 2004–2020,” Google Trends, 2020; Barclay, “How Big Was the Global Climate Strike?”
24 Hahrie Han, How Organizations Develop Activists: Civic Associations and Leadership in the 21st Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Engler and Engler, This Is an Uprising; Jane McAlevey, A Collective Bargain: Unions, Organizing, and the Fight for Democracy (New York: HarperCollins, 2020).
25 Julie Battilana et al., “Problem, Person, and Pathway: A Framework for Social Innovators,” in Handbook of Inclusive Innovation, ed. Gerard George et al. (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019), 61–74.
26 Cynthia Rayner and François Bonnici, The Systems Work of Social Change (forthcoming); Christian Seelos and Johanna Mair, Innovation and Scaling for Impact: How Effective Social Enterprises Do It (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017).
27 Steve Lydenberg, Jean Rogers, and David Wood, “From Transparency to Performance: Industry-Based Sustainability Reporting on Key Issues,” Initiative for Responsible Investment, Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations, Harvard University, 2010.
28 Julie Battilana and Michael Norris, “The Sustainability Accounting Standards Board,” Harvard Business School Case 414-078, 2015.
29 Jean Rogers in discussion with the authors, December 2018, December 2020, and January 2021.
30 María Rachid, in discussion with the authors, August 2020.
31 Hector Tobar and Chris Kraul, “Millions of Bank Accounts Are Frozen in Beleaguered Argentina,” Los Angeles Times, January 11, 2002, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-jan-11-mn-21962-story.html.
32 For more on political opportunity, see William A. Gamson and David Meyer “Framing Political Opportunity,” in Doug McAdam, J. McCarthy, and M. Zald, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 275–90; Hanspeter Kriesi, “Political Context and Opportunity,” in David Snow, Sarah Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi, eds., Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004): 67–90; Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); David S. Meyer, “Protest and Political Opportunities,” Annual Review of Sociology 30 (2004): 125–45; Sidney Tarrow, “States and Opportunities: The Political Structuring of Social Movements,” in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, eds. Doug McAdam, Joseph McCarthy, and Meyer Zald, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 41–61; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978).
33 Han, How Organizations Develop Activists.
34 Argentina is one of the few countries in the world to have granted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, along with other human rights–centered international agreements, constitutional status, complementing the other rights guaranteed by the national constitution.
35 Omar G. Encarnación, Out in the Periphery: Latin America’s Gay Rights Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
36 Melanie C. Green and Timothy C. Brock, “The Role of Transportation in the Persuasiveness of Public Narratives,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 5 (2000): 701–21.
37 Ryann Manning, Julie Battilana, and Lakshmi Ramarajan, “Up for Interpretation: How Audiences’ Unexpected Responses Threaten Social Movement Identities,” Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings (October 2014).
38 Manning, Battilana, and Ramarajan, “Up for Interpretation.”
39 Encarnación, Out in the Periphery, 146.
40 Monica Anderson and Skye Toor, “How Social Media Users Have Discussed Sexual Harassment since #MeToo Went Viral,” Pew Research Center, October 11, 2018; Benedetta Faedi Duramy, “#MeToo and the Pursuit of Women’s International Human Rights,” University of San Francisco Law Review 54, no. 2 (2020): 215–68.
41 Tarana Burke in discussion with the authors, February 2020.
42 Scholar Ronald A. Heifetz distinguishes between “technical problems,” which may be solved through better management or expertise, and “adaptive problems” that require changes in beliefs and values. For more on Heifetz’s pioneering concept of adaptive leadership, see Leadership Without Easy Answers (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1994).
43 To further explore the transformation in political participation instigated by the digital age, see Danielle Allen and Jennifer S. Light, From Voice to Influence: Understanding Citizenship in a Digital Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).
44 Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas, 70–1.
45 Alicia Garza, The Purpose of Power: How We Come Together When We Fall Apart (New York: One World, 2020), xi.
46 Marshall Ganz, Why David Sometimes Wins: Leadership, Organization, and Strategy in the
California Farm Worker Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas.
47 John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, “Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory,” American Journal of Sociology 82, no. 6 (1977): 1212–41.
48 Ganz, Why David Sometimes Wins, 252.
7. POWER DOESN’T CHANGE—IT JUST CHANGES HANDS
1 Moisés Naím, The End of Power: From Boardrooms to Battlefields and Churches to States, Why Being in Charge Isn’t What It Used to Be (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 12.
2 Jeremy Heimans and Henry Timms, New Power: How Power Works in Our Hyperconnected World—and How to Make It Work for You (New York: Doubleday, 2018).
3 “The Development of Agriculture,” National Geographic Society, August 19, 2019, http://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/development-agriculture/; Yuval N. Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (London: Harvill Secker, 2014).
4 Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999).
5 David I. Howie, “Benedictine Monks, Manuscripts Copying, and the Renaissance: Johannes Trithemius’ «De Laude Scriptorum»” Revue Bénédictine 86, no. 1–2 (1976): 129–54.
6 Elizabeth L. Einstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
7 L. B. Larsen et al., “New Ice Core Evidence for a Volcanic Cause of the A.D. 536 Dust Veil,” Geophysical Research Letters 35, no. 4 (2008).
8 Greg Williams, “Disrupting Poverty: How Barefoot College Is Empowering Women through Peer-to-Peer Learning and Technology,” Wired UK, March 7, 2011, https://www.wired.co.uk/article/disrupting-poverty.
9 Meagan Fallone, in discussion with the authors, December 2020.
10 René Descartes, A Discourse on Method, trans. John Veitch (London: J. M. Dent, 1912), 49.
11 The scientific method uses observations and rigorous testing of falsifiable hypotheses to acquire knowledge about the world.
12 Meghan Bartels, “How Do You Stop a Hypothetical Asteroid From Hitting Earth? NASA’s On It,” Space.com, May 2, 2019, https://www.space.com/asteroid-threat-simulation-nasa-deflection-idea.html.
13 Keenan Mayo and Peter Newcomb, “The Birth of the World Wide Web: An Oral History of the Internet,” Vanity Fair, July 2008, https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/07/internet200807.
14 Naím, The End of Power; Heimans and Timms, New Power.
15 Joshua Gans and Andrew Leigh, Innovation + Equality: How to Create a Future that is More Star Trek Than Terminator (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2019): 7.
16 Jean Luc Chabert, A History of Algorithms: From the Pebble to the Microchip (Berlin: Springer, 1999): 7.
17 “Coding,” Explained, Vox Media (Netflix, 2019).
18 Pedro Domingos, The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 1.
19 “Coding,” Vox Media; Ajay Agrawal, Joshua Gans, and Avi Goldfarb, Prediction Machines: The Simple Economics of Artificial Intelligence (Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 2018).
20 Sara Reardon, “Rise of Robot Radiologists,” Nature (London) 576, no. 7787 (2019): S54–58.
21 For an analysis of the opportunities and challenges in this domain, see Miriam Mutebi et al., “Innovative Use of MHealth and Clinical Technology for Oncology Clinical Trials in Africa,” JCO Global Oncology, no. 6 (2020): 948–53.
22 Susan Wharton Gates, Vanessa Gail Perry, and Peter M. Zorn, “Automated Underwriting in Mortgage Lending: Good News for the Underserved?” Housing Policy Debate 13, no. 2 (2002): 369–91. For a pioneering analysis of the debiasing potential of linear models, including their superior accuracy in predicting loan underwriting defaults, see Robyn M. Dawes, “The Robust Beauty of Improper Linear Models in Decision-Making,” American Psychologist 34, no. 7 (1979): 571–82.
23 Batya Friedman and Helen Nissenbaum, “Bias in Computer Systems,” ACM Transactions on Information Systems 14, no. 3 (1996): 330–47; also discussed in Agrawal, Gans, and Goldfarb, Prediction Machines, and in Marco Ianstiti and Karim Lakhani, Competing in the Age of AI: Strategy and Leadership When Algorithms and Networks Run the World (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2020).
24 Tom Simonite, “The Best Algorithms Still Struggle to Recognize Black Faces,” Wired, Conde Nast, July 22, 2019, https://www.wired.com/story/best-algorithms-struggle-recognize-black-faces-equally/. For more on algorithmic recognition bias see Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification,” in Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency, PMLR (2018): 77–91; Yui Man Lui et al., “A Meta-Analysis of Face Recognition Covariates,” in 2009 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems (2009): 1–8.
25 Joy Buolamwini, “How I’m Fighting Bias in Algorithms,” TEDxBeaconStreet, November 2016, https://www.ted.com/talks/joy_buolamwini_how_i_m_fighting_bias_in_algorithms.
26 Virginia Eubanks, Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor (New York: Picador, 2019); Ruha Benjamin, Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2019).
27 Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy (Westminster, UK: Penguin Books, 2017); Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York University Press, 2018).
28 Cathy O’Neil, “The Era of Blind Faith in Big Data Must End,” TED, April 2017, https://www.ted.com/talks/cathy_o_neil_the_era_of_blind_faith_in_big_data_must_end.
29 Emily Chang, Brotopia: Breaking up the Boys’ Club of Silicon Valley (New York: Portfolio/Penguin, 2019).
30 In the eighteenth century, English philosopher Jeremy Bentham designed an influential prison system, the “panopticon.” His design delineated space in the prison such that a ring-shape of prison cells surrounded a central tower for guards. While guards could always see all of prisoners’ cells, guards remained invisible to prisoners in faraway small windows. French intellectual Michel Foucault went on to see the panopticon as a symbol of social control that could be understood to characterize the everyday life of not only prisoners but actually all citizens. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995).
31 Yuval Noah Harari, “Why Technology Favors Tyranny,” The Atlantic, September 13, 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/.
32 Adam Satariano, “How My Boss Monitors Me While I Work From Home,” New York Times, May 6, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/06/technology/employee-monitoring-work-from-home-virus.html.
33 Amy Webb, The Big Nine: How the Tech Titans and Their Thinking Machines Could Warp Humanity (New York: PublicAffairs, 2020).
34 Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (New York: PublicAffairs, 2020).
35 Tobias Rose-Stockwell, “This Is How Your Fear and Outrage Are Being Sold for Profit,” Medium, August 12, 2019, https://medium.com/@tobiasrose/the-enemy-in-our-feeds-e86511488de. See also Tim Wu, The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get inside Our Heads (Vancouver, B.C.: Langara College, 2020).
36 Agrawal, Gans, and Goldfarb, Prediction Machines, 43.
37 Open Hearing on Foreign Influence Operations’ Use of Social Media Platforms (Company Witnesses), Before the Select Committee on Intelligence of the United States Senate, 115th Cong. (2018) (statement of Jack Dorsey, CEO of Twitter).
38 Jerrold Nadler and David N. Cicilline, Investigation of Competition in Digital Markets: Majority Staff Report and Recommendations, United States House of Representatives Subcommittee on Antitrust, Commercial and Administrative Law of the Committee of the Judiciary, 2020.
39 Fernando Belinchón and Moynihan Qayyah, “25 Giant Companies That Are Bigger than Entire Count
ries,” Business Insider, July 25, 2018, https://www.businessinsider.com/25-giant-companies-that-earn-more-than-entire-countries-2018-7.
40 Jenny Odell, How to Do Nothing: Resisting the Attention Economy (New York: Melville House, 2021).
41 Dell Cameron and Kate Conger, “Google Is Helping the Pentagon Build AI for Drones,” Gizmodo, June 1, 2018, https://gizmodo.com/google-is-helping-the-pentagon-build-ai-for-drones-1823464533.
42 Meredith Whittaker, in discussion with the authors, September 2020.
43 Scott Shane and Daisuke Wakabayashi, “ ‘The Business of War’: Google Employees Protest Work for the Pentagon,” New York Times, April 4, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/04/technology/google-letter-ceo-pentagon-project.html.
44 Reuters, “Google to Halt Controversial Project Aiding Pentagon Drones,” NBC News, June 2, 2018, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/military/google-halt-controversial-project-aiding-pentagon-drones-n879471.
45 Lulu Chang, “As Google Continues Its Work on a Military Project, a Dozen Employees Resign,” Digital Trends, June 2, 2018, https://www.digitaltrends.com/business/google-employees-letter-to-ceo-war/.
46 Davey Alba, “Google Backs Away from Controversial Military Drone Project,” BuzzFeed, June 1, 2018, https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/daveyalba/google-says-it-will-not-follow-through-on-pentagon-drone-ai.
47 Sundar Pichai, “AI at Google: Our Principles,” Google, June 7, 2018, https://blog.google/technology/ai/ai-principles/.
48 Ryan Gallagher, “Google Plans to Launch Censored Search Engine in China, Leaked Documents Reveal,” The Intercept, August 1, 2018, https://theintercept.com/2018/08/01/google-china-search-engine-censorship/.
49 Find a copy of the open letter in the New York Times archive here: https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/166-dragonfly-letter/ae6267f0128f4facd183/optimized/full.pdf#page=1.
50 “Open Letter: Google Must Not Capitulate on Human Rights to Gain Access to China,” Amnesty International, August 28, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/08/open-letter-to-google-on-reported-plans-to-launch-a-censored-search-engine-in-china/.
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