61. Sachs (1987), 243–45; Sachs (2017), 612–13.
62. “Arturo Toscanini’s Farewell,” New York Times, April 26, 1936; “Toscanini Cheered in Great Ovation,” Ibid., April 27, 1936; “Beethoven and Wagner Offered as Toscanini’s Parting Gesture,” Ibid., April 30, 1936; “Toscanini Admirers Storm Hall for His Farewell Concert Here,” Ibid., April 30, 1936; “Toscanini Receives Roosevelt Tribute,” Ibid., May 2, 1936.
63. Though written after the Furtwängler episode, note Olin Downes, “And after Toscanini—What?” North American Review (June 1936): 204–22.
64. On the Philharmonic’s decision: Executive Committee Meeting, February 12, 1936, Conductor file, Furtwängler, no. 16, NYPA; “Cables Interchanged between Mr. Triller and Dr. Furtwängler,” March 2, 1936, Ibid. Note Roger Allen, Wilhelm Furtwängler: Art and the Politics of the Unpolitical (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2018), chs. 1–4; and Sam Shirakawa, The Devil’s Music Master: The Controversial Life and Career of Wilhelm Furtwängler (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) chs. 1–3.
65. “Philharmonic Post for Furtwaengler,” New York Times, February 29, 1936. Note “Furtwaengler to Conduct Here,” New York Sun, February 29, 1936; “Furtwaengler Is to Direct Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid. For coverage across the country, see website.
66. Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 84–85. Schuller also considers whether these distinctions are real or imagined. Joseph Horowitz is altogether illuminating on this. Understanding Toscanini, 363–68. The phrase “priestly aura” is from Norman Lebrecht, 20.
67. “Critics of ‘Nazi’ Plan to Boycott Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 1, 1936; “To Fight Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 9, 1936. Note “Orchestra Boycott Brews on Nazi Link,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1936; “Jews Oppose Nazi Leader of New York Symphony,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 1, 1936; “New York Group Formed to Oppose Furtwängler,” Baltimore Sun, March 9, 1936.
68. “Furtwaengler Is Queried on Nazism by N.Y. Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 9, 1936.
69. “Teachers’ Union Protests Naming of Furtwaengler,” New York Herald Tribune, March 5, 1936.
70. “Reich Reinstates Dr. Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 1, 1936; “Reinstated in Berlin,” Washington Post, March 1, 1936; “Furtwängler Agrees to Conduct in Berlin,” Baltimore Sun, March 4, 1936.
71. “Furtwaengler Is Queried on Nazism by N.Y. Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 9, 1936; “New York Group Formed to Oppose Furtwängler,” Baltimore Sun, Ibid; “Furtwaengler Hit as Protest Grows,” New York Post, Ibid.
72. “May Boycott Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 6, 1936.
73. “Philharmonic Faces Threat of Anti-Nazis,” New York World-Telegram, March 5, 1936.
74. “Declares Article on Philharmonic Squabble Is Based on Wrong Theory,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 22, 1936.
75. “The Philharmonic’s Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936. The newspaper noted it had received many letters on the subject, but published just a few.
76. Ibid. Note the letter from Walter Jackson labeled “Conductor’s German Position,” Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Sachs (1987), 244; Sachs (2017), 615.
79. “ ‘Alien Experimental Mania’ in Art Attacked by Nazis,” New York Times, April 16, 1933. The article contains Goebbels’s reply to Furtwängler. Note “Plea for Art Made by Furtwaengler,” Ibid., April 12, 1933; Samuel Lipman, “Furtwängler and the Nazis,” Commentary (March 1993): 44–49; Harvey Sachs, “Furtwängler and the Führer,” Yale Review (July 1993): 105–21. On Furtwängler’s effort to have Jews and other “undesirable” foreign artists play with the Berlin Philharmonic, see “Foreign Musicians Spurn Reich Bids,” New York Times, July 26, 1933; “Musicians Rebuff Reich,” Ibid., August 2, 1933. Kater is extraordinarily illuminating on the complexity of Furtwängler’s motives in this period, Twisted Muse, 195–203.
80. On Hindemith, see Michael H. Kater, Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 2; and Shirakawa, ch. 11.
81. “Hindemith Defended from Nazi Criticism,” New York Times, November 26, 1934.
82. “Dr. Mason Praises Furtwaengler,” New York Times, December 6, 1934.
83. “Furtwaengler Resigns in Nazi Music ‘Revolt’,” New York Herald Tribune, December 5, 1934.
84. “Hindemith Centre of Nazi Music Row,” New York Times, December 3, 1934; “Dr. Furtwaengler Quits Reich Posts,” New York Times, December 5, 1934. On the attacks on Furtwängler, see “Rebukes Furtwaengler,” Ibid., December 7, 1934; “Nazi Papers Score Dr. Furtwaengler,” Ibid., December 8, 1934. For Chicago Tribune coverage: “Music Revolt Flares in Berlin for Art and Freedom,” December 6, 1934; “In Nazi Revolt,” December 7, 1934 (this was a large photo of Furtwängler and a brief note that he had resigned); “Composer Cries 3 Words at Nazi Opera; Is Jailed,” December 12, 1934; “Germany Bans Critic for His Taste in Music,” December 13, 1934; “German Cabinet Tightens Nazi Grip on State,” December 14, 1934.
85. “Music in Germany Is Now at Low Ebb,” New York Times, December 9, 1934.
86. Shirakawa, 189–94.
87. “Furtwängler Reinstated,” Time (May 6, 1935): 41; “German Maestro Wins Cheers at 1st Concert since Row with Nazis,” Chicago Tribune, April 26, 1935; “Berlin Hails Conquering Hero as Furtwängler Resumes Baton,” Musical Courier (May 18, 1935): 5; “Berlin Emotionally Hails Furtwängler Return,” Musical America (June 1935): 10.
88. “An Artistic Conductor,” Washington Post, March 2, 1936.
89. “The Philharmonic Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936. The so-called reinstatement referred to a position on the Council of State in the Nazi government and also, though Cooper did not mention it, to his conducting position at the State Opera. “Furtwaengler to Conduct Here,” New York Sun, February 29, 1936; “Reinstated in Berlin,” Washington Post, March 1, 1936; “Noted German Opera Maestro Wins Old Post,” Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1936.
90. “The Philharmonic Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936.
91. Ibid.
92. “Philharmonic Should Rescind Furtwaengler Appointment,” American Hebrew (March 6, 1936): 443–44; “Heil Furtwaengler!” New Masses (March 10, 1936): 11–12.
93. “Philharmonic Should Rescind Furtwaengler Appointment,” American Hebrew (March 6, 1936): 443–44. Note “Furtwaengler Drops Mendelssohn Opus,” New York Times, January 14, 1936; “What Is Nazi Propaganda?” Commonweal (March 13, 1936): 535–36; “Heil Furtwaengler!” New Masses (March 10, 1936): 11–12.
94. “Music and Musicians,” New York Sun, March 7, 1936.
95. “Furtwaengler Appointment a Philharmonic Blunder,” New York Post, March 7, 1936. Critic B. H. Haggin considered Furtwängler’s musical limitations. “Furtwaengler and the Philharmonic,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 8, 1936. For an anti-Furtwängler editorial, see “The Week,” Ibid., March 15, 1936.
96. “Furtwaengler Bid Solely as Artist,” New York Times, March 7, 1936. The statement was published widely. Note “Art Ruled Choice of Furtwaengler,” New York American, Ibid.; “Furtwaengler’s Job Not Political,” New York Sun, Ibid.; “Furtwaengler and Philharmonic Deny Art Is Colored by Politics,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid.; “ ‘Music My Only Job,’—Furtwaengler,” New York World-Telegram, Ibid.
97. “Furtwaengler Bid Solely as Artist,” New York Times, March 7, 1936. The statement appeared in full or in part in the newspapers cited above.
98. Walter W. Price to Charles Triller, March 9, 1936, box 010-13-16 (also in Conductor file, Furtwängler, folder 16), NYPA.
99. Ibid.
100. David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 384. Note Ernest R. May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 35–38.
102. “Furtwaengler Declines Post Here; Will Not Mix Music and Politics,” New York Times, March 15, 1936.
103. Ibid. Coverage of the resignation was widespread. “N.Y. Bid Rejected by Nazi Conductor,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 15, 1936; “N.Y. Offer Declined by Furtwängler,” Washington Post, March 15, 1936; “Furtwängler Declines to Serve with New York Philharmonic,” Baltimore Sun, March 15, 1936; “ ‘Politics’ Leads Furtwaengler to Decline Post,” New York Herald Tribune, March 15, 1936; “Furtwaengler Cancels N.Y. Symphony Debut,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 15, 1936.
104. “Nazi Stays Home,” Time (March 23, 1936): 51.
105. “Best Way Out,” Baltimore Sun, March 16, 1936.
106. “Politics and Art,” Washington Post, March 16, 1936.
107. “Exit Mr. Furtwaengler,” New York Sun, March 16, 1936. Note “Mr. Furtwaengler Declines,” New York Times, March 16, 1936.
108. “Politics and the Philharmonic,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 29, 1936. Note “Dissenting Opinions,” Ibid., March 22, 1936.
109. “Beethoven and Wagner Offered as Toscanini’s Parting Gesture,” New York Times, April 30, 1936.
110. “Stransky Dies; Philharmonic Leader 12 Years,” New York Times, March 7, 1936.
111. “Toscanini to Conduct Concerts of New Orchestra in Palestine,” New York Times, February 23, 1936.
112. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, April 10, 1936, The Letters of Arturo Toscanini, Harvey Sachs, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 198.
113. “Toscanini Decides to Do Mendelssohn,” New York Times, April 21, 1936.
114. “Toscanini Reaches Jerusalem by Plane,” New York Times, December 21, 1936. Note “Palestine Symphony,” Time (January 4, 1937): 24.
115. “Toscanini Opens Palestine Season,” New York Times, December 27, 1936; “Plans of Toscanini,” Ibid., December 30, 1936. Note “Toscanini Directs at Cairo Concert,” Ibid., January 8, 1937; “Toscanini Leads Exile Orchestra in Holy Land City,” Chicago Tribune, December 27, 1936; “Exiles Play under Baton of Toscanini,” Washington Post, Ibid.
116. “Holy City Concert Pleases Toscanini,” New York Times, December 31, 1936.
117. “Palestine Grove Given to Toscanini,” New York Times, January 4, 1937.
118. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, January 4, 1937, Letters, 229–30.
119. “Palestine Greets Toscanini at Haifa,” New York Times, April 10, 1938.
120. “1,700 in Palestine Applaud Toscanini,” New York Times, April 14, 1938. Note “Toscanini in Exile,” Los Angeles Times, April 10, 1938; and “Palestine Hails Toscanini,” Washington Post, April 14, 1938.
121. “Toscanini Repeats Palestine Triumph,” New York Times, April 18, 1938.
122. Ibid.
123. “Toscanini Draws Jerusalem Crowd,” New York Times, April 21, 1938. Note an October 1938 report in the paper of the New York musicians’ union (Local 802, A.F. of M.): 7, Clipping file, A. Toscanini, folder 8, NYPLPA.
124. See “Toscanini and Walter Win Ovations at Salzburg Festival,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1934): 5; “Music,” Time (September 2, 1935): 30; “The Greatest Musical Event of the Year,” Literary Digest (September 21, 1935): 22.
125. “Toscanini Bars Salzburg Broadcast to Reich; Refuses to Conduct Unless Plan Dropped,” New York Times, July 30, 1936; “Music,” Time (August 24, 1936): 44.
126. “Music,” Time (July 26, 1937): 37; “Toscanini’s Magic Flute is Crowning Salzburg Feature,” Musical Courier (September 1, 1937): 7; “Salzburg Has Brilliant Start under Toscanini,” Musical America (August 1937): 5.
127. “Salzburg Concert by Furtwaengler,” New York Times, August 28, 1937. Musical America said the Beethoven was “a trifle nervous and overdone.” “Ovations End Salzburg’s Finest Festival,” Musical America (October 10, 1937): 10. The reviews, writes Harvey Sachs, were “mainly tepid.” Sachs (2017), 371.
128. “Ovations End Salzburg’s Finest Festival,” Musical America (October 10, 1937): 10. Note Shirakawa, 212–15; and Toscanini to Bruno Walter, July 3, 1937, Letters, 265–66. Note his telegram to the Austrian Minister of Education, July 3, 1937, Letters, 268.
129. “Salzburg Festival Closes Tomorrow,” New York Times, August 30, 1937. Note the account by Sachs (2017), 671–72.
130. “German Conductor Refuses Vienna Bid,” New York Times, September 3, 1937.
131. “Two Conductors Battle over Art,” New York Sun, September 24, 1937; “May Shun Salzburg,” New York Times, September 24, 1937. Another version has the two men meeting in Toscanini’s dressing room after a performance, with Toscanini accusing Furtwängler of being a Nazi. Furtwängler said this was a lie, and Toscanini replied even if he had helped Jewish friends, he was still working for Hitler. Shirakawa, 215.
132. Toscanini to Bruno Walter, July 3, 1937, Letters, 265–66.
133. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, July 12, 1937, Letters, 269.
134. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, July 24, 1937, Letters, 271.
135. “Toscanini Seems Salzburg Victor,” New York Times, November 22, 1937. Note “Denies Toscanini Demand,” Ibid., December 22, 1937.
136. New York Times: “Germans Threaten Austria,” February 15, 1938; “Ultimatum Is Met,” February 16, 1938; “Reich Is Jubilant,” February 16, 1938.
137. “Toscanini Breaks with Salzburg because of Nazi Victory in Austria,” New York Times, February 17, 1938. Note “Salzburg Concert Canceled by List,” Ibid., February 18, 1938. Note Gerhard Weinberg, Germany, Hitler, and World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 95–108.
138. “Toscanini Breaks with Salzburg because of Nazi Victory in Austria,” New York Times, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini Drops Salzburg Baton because of Nazis,” New York Post, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini, Foe of Nazis, Drops Salzburg Date,” New York Herald Tribune, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini to Stay Away from Salzburg Festival,” Boston Globe, February 18, 1938; “Toscanini Puts Salzburg Fete on Boycott List,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1938; “Toscanini Won’t Go to Salzburg,” Los Angeles Times, February 18, 1938; “Maestro Turns Down Salzburg Music Festival,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 18, 1938.
139. “Toscanini Declines,” Baltimore Sun, February 20, 1938.
140. “Salzburg’s Blow,” Musical Courier (March 1, 1938): 36.
141. “Surprised at Toscanini,” New York Times, February 19, 1938.
142. “Salzburg Asks Toscanini Not to Drop Its Festival,” New York Herald Tribune, February 19, 1938.
143. “Toscanini Refuses Plea,” New York Times, March 4, 1938.
144. “Salzburg Mourns Loss of Toscanini,” New York Times, March 5, 1938.
145. “Salzburg Repeats Plea to Toscanini,” New York Times, March 8, 1938.
146. “Toscanini Sails; To Shun Salzburg,” New York Times, March 10, 1938; “Toscanini Sails on Queen Mary under Escort,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid.
147. “Salzburg Alters Plans,” New York Times, April 22, 1938.
148. “Nazis Burn Books on Salzburg Pyre,” New York Times, May 1, 1938. Note “Roosevelt Blasts ‘Book Burners,’ Censors of News,” Washington Post, July 1, 1938.
149. “Salzburg Festival Is Opened by Nazis,” New York Times, July 24, 1938.
150. “Nazi Salzburg,” Time (August 1, 1938): 42.
151. “Salzburg Festival—1938 Edition,” New York Times, September 25, 1938. Note “Changes in Austria,” New York Times, April 3, 1938.
152. “Toscanini Hailed at First Lucerne Festival of Music,” Musical America (September 1938): 3. Note “Toscanini to Give Wagner Program,” New York Times, June 11, 1938; “Toscanini Directs for Lucerne Fete,” Ibid., August 26, 1938; “Lucerne as a Music Center,” Ibid., December 3, 1938 (letter to the editor).
153. “Lucerne: Salzburg’s Rival Draws Toscanini’s Following,” Newsweek (August 7, 1939): 31; “Musical Axes,” Time (August 14, 1939): 47–48
. Note “Second Lucerne Festival,” New York Times, February 26, 1939; “Lucerne Festival,” April 2, 1939, Ibid.; “Toscanini to Be Heard in Series from Europe,” Chicago Tribune, June 11, 1939.
154. “Lucerne Festival Ends upon Note of Exultation,” Musical America (October 10, 1939): 5. Note “Toscanini Shuns Vacation in Italy,” New York Times, August 27, 1939; “Lucerne Festival,” Ibid., October 1, 1939. For a letter to the editor, see “Swiss City, It Is Held, Established Its Claim Last Summer,” Ibid., December 3, 1938.
155. Note “Nazi System,” Time (May 30, 1938): 24; and “Nazi Index,” Ibid. (June 27, 1938): 36.
156. Justus D. Doenecke and John E. Wiltz, From Isolation to War, 1931–1941 (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2003), 168; and Jonas, 214–15.
Chapter Five: “Let Us Conquer Darkness with the Burning Light of Art”: Shostakovich and Toscanini Confront the Dictators
1. For the description of the Pearl Harbor attack, see David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 520, 522; and Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990), 404–8. Quotations from Freidel.
2. “Variations,” Musical Courier (April 5, 1943): 17.
3. “Seattle Continues Music Plans,” Musical Courier (January 5, 1942): 8. Note “Music Plays Relief Role during War,” Seattle Daily Times, December 10, 1941.
4. “Music: Robeson Proves He’s Still Greatest Bass,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 17, 1941; and “San Francisco Reports Boom for Orchestra,” Musical Courier (January 5, 1942): 5.
5. “Orchestras Expect Rise in Attendance,” New York Times, December 19, 1941. Note “Orchestral Managers Confident,” Musical Courier (January 1, 1942): 20. For a genuinely illuminating study, see Annegret Fauser, Sounds of War: Music in the United States during World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
6. Casualty figures from Gerhard Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 894; and Andrew Roberts, The Storm of War: A New History of the Second World War (New York: Harper Collins, 2011), 579. Lower figure: Roberts; higher figure: Weinberg.
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