206. “Berlin Orchestra Gets Ovation Here,” Washington Post, February 28, 1955. Note “Packed House Greets Karajan, Berlin Players,” Ibid.
207. “Berlin Philharmonic Concert,” Washington Post, March 3, 1955. For a harsh dissent on Karajan’s US appearance, see a letter from Julius Rosenbaum of the Jewish War Veterans of the United States. “Goodwill Tour,” Ibid., March 26, 1955.
208. “Washington Hails Berlin Orchestra,” New York Herald Tribune, February 28, 1955.
209. “Impressive Program Given by Berlin Philharmonic,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1955.
210. The first New York Herald Tribune letter appeared on March 6, 1955. See “An Orchestra’s Visit.” The second, in response, appeared on March 11, 1955. See “The Berlin Orchestra.”
211. “Berlin Musicians Met Legal Tests,” New York Times, March 1, 1955.
212. “Berlin Philharmonic Gets Rousing Welcome in Bow,” March 2, 1955, New York World-Telegram, March 2, 1955.
213. “Berlin Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 2, 1955.
214. “Music: Berlin Orchestra,” New York Times, March 2, 1955. See website.
215. On the protest, see “Berlin Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 2, 1955; and “Berlin Philharmonic Is a Success at Carnegie,” New Daily News, Ibid. The protester’s quotation is from “300 Picket Carnegie against Nazi-Led Band,” Daily Worker, March 3, 1955.
216. “Nazi Aims Denied by von Karajan,” New York Times, March 3, 1955.
217. For the concert programs, see “Touring Berlin Philharmonic Adds Carol Brice as Soloist,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1955.
218. “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, March 12, 1955.
219. Ibid., March 14, 1955. For a glowing account of the second Chicago concert, see “Philharmonic Combines Old with the New,” Ibid., March 13, 1955.
220. “Cleveland,” Musical Courier (April 1955): 27. The same issue contains glowing reviews of the Berlin concerts in New York, 17; Chicago, 26; Washington, 28; and Philadelphia, 29.
221. “Music,” Boston Globe, March 25, 1955.
222. “Ohio Concert Scored,” New York Times, March 4, 1955.
223. “Detroit Musicians Protest Nazi-Led Tour,” Daily Worker, March 4, 1955.
224. “Nazi-Led Band Stirs More Protests,” Daily Worker, March 7, 1955. The article highlighted protests by two Jewish organizations, the Jewish Council, a Baltimore group, and the American Federation for Polish Jews, which sent telegrams to members of Congress.
225. See “Berlin Orchestra Acclaimed Here,” Detroit News, March 18, 1955; and “Berlin Conductor Heir to Greatness,” Detroit News, March 13, 1955.
226. For the description outside the hall, see “3 Pigeons Loosed as Protest at Concert of Berlin Orchestra in Carnegie Hall,” New York Times, March 31, 1955; “Cops to Guard Maestro from N.Y. Anti-Nazis,” New York Post, Ibid.; and “Berlin Group Picketed,” Long Island Star-Journal, Ibid. The argument concerning the McCarran-Walter Act was also made during the Gieseking affair.
227. “Pickets, Pigeon, Perfection,” New York World-Telegram, March 31, 1955.
228. “3 Pigeons Loosed as Protest at Concert of Berlin Orchestra in Carnegie Hall,” New York Times, March 31, 1955. Note “Pickets, Pigeon, Perfection,” New York World-Telegram, March 31, 1955.
229. “Orchestra Departs,” New York Times, April 3, 1955. Note “3d Berlin Orchestra Concert,” New York Times, April 2, 1955; and “Berlin Orchestra Leaves,” New York Herald Tribune, April 3, 1955.
230. “Philharmonic Back in Berlin After U.S. Tour,” Chicago Tribune, April 4, 1955.
231. See website.
232. “Touchy Problem,” New York Times, March 6, 1955.
233. Ibid.
234. “Artist and Morality,” New York Times, April 3, 1955.
235. “A Giant in the Earth,” Musical America (December 15, 1954): 4.
236. “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, December 1, 1954. Note Cassidy’s Tribune column from September 4, 1949, based on her interview with Furtwängler in Salzburg.
237. “Furtwaengler—an Estimate,” New York Times, December 12, 1954. The Times’ obituary did consider Furtwängler’s complex relationship with Nazism. See “Furtwaengler, 68, Conductor, Dead,” Ibid., December 1, 1954. The conductor’s passing was widely covered. See website.
238. “Gieseking, Noted Pianist, Dies in London,” New York World-Telegram, October 26, 1956.
239. “Gieseking Dead; Pianist Was 60,” New York Times, October 27, 1956. An assessment of Gieseking that did not mention his politics is “Au Revoir to Walter Gieseking,” Saturday Review (December 29, 1956): 34–35.
240. See “3,500 Say Farewell to Toscanini at Funeral Service Held in St. Patrick’s,” New York Times, January 20, 1957; and “Flag Lowered at La Scala,” Ibid., January 17, 1957.
241. “The Legacy Toscanini Left,” Musical America (February 1957): 32.
242. “Tributes to Toscanini Offered by President, Mayor and Leaders in the Music World,” New York Times, January 17, 1957.
243. Quoted in “Toscanini Fought against Fascism,” New York Times, January 17, 1957. For a national sampling, see website.
244. “Arturo Toscanini,” New York Times, January 17, 1957. Note “Maestro Kept Eye on Events in Italy,” Ibid; and “A Free Spirit,” Ibid., January 20, 1957.
Chapter Seven: “The Obedient Instrument of the State”: Shostakovich and Copland in the Age of McCarthy
1. “7 Russians Silent on ‘Peace’ Mission,” New York Times, March 24, 1949. See website for additional press accounts.
2. “Red ‘Peace’ Group Here; Rival Rally Wins New Support,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
3. “7 Russians Silent on ‘Peace’ Mission,” New York Times, March 24, 1949.
4. “Red ‘Peace’ Group Here; Rival Rally Wins New Support,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
5. On the placards: “N.Y. ‘Peace’ Rally Protest Planned,” Baltimore Sun, March 24, 1949; “Magazine Sees Intellectuals Forced to Sponsor Red Rally,” New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1949.
6. See website for writings on the Cold War, including its domestic implications.
7. “Music and Soviet Spirit,” New York Times, January 4, 1942. Note “Soviet Music at Quarter-Century Mark,” Musical America (February 10, 1943): 20–21. For an atypical assessment of music in wartime Russia, see the piece by composer Nicolas Nabokov. “Music under Dictatorship,” Atlantic Monthly (January 1942): 92–99.
8. “Composer, Soviet-Style,” Time (November 19, 1945): 57–62. Two readers claimed the editors were Communist sympathizers. “Letters,” Time (December 31, 1945): 2.
9. “Prokofieff’s Voice Is Cosmopolitan; His Theme Is the Spirit of Russia,” Newsweek (November 19, 1945): 82, 84.
10. “Creative Rest Centers of Russia,” Musical Courier (November 15, 1945): 4–5.
11. “Hersey Sees Russia’s Artists as Challenge to American Pace,” Herald Tribune, November 4, 1945.
12. “Commuter to the Caucasus,” Musical Courier (December 15, 1945): 9.
13. “Musicians Take Part in American-Soviet Conference,” Musical America (November 25, 1945): 3–4. Note “Events in the World of Music,” New York Times, November 4, 1945.
14. For works on Cold War origins, see website.
15. See John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), ch. 10.
16. See website on Senator Joseph McCarthy’s impact and the second Red Scare.
17. “U.S. Asks Soviet Artists to Register as Agents; Noted Musicians Protest,” Musical America (November 10, 1946): 16. The Justice Department demand caused alarm in classical-music circles. Ibid., 16. The episode on the delegation was covered widely.
18. “Party Rebuke to Shostakovich Charges His Music Is Decadent,” New York Herald Tribune, February 12, 1948. Note “Soviet Denounces Its ‘Big 3’ in Music, Order a New Line,” New York Times, February 12, 1948. Other leading newspapers (Bos
ton, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, DC) covered the story on that date.
19. “Leading Soviet Composers Rebuked by Communist Central Committee,” Musical America (March 15, 1948): 3, 18.
20. Richard Taruskin, Music in the Late Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 9. In opposition to formalism was Socialist Realism, which, according to Taruskin, did not have as much to do with “Marxist socialism” as with “more traditional Russian attitudes toward the arts.” Excluding modernism, “Socialist Realism demanded that art be rooted in folklore, or . . . in styles familiar and meaningful to all without special preparation.” Richard Taruskin, Music in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 779. Note Laurel E. Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 154–65; and “Zhdanov Calls Tunes in Soviet Russia,” New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1948.
21. “Soviet Music Compared to Dentist’s Drill,” New York Times, March 24, 1948.
22. “Three Well Known in U.S.,” New York Times, February 12, 1948. Note Claudia Cassidy’s “On the Aisle” column in the Chicago Tribune, February 20, 1948.
23. “To Give Russians’ Works,” New York Times, February 15, 1948.
24. “Prokofieff Opera to Be Given Here,” New York Times, February 13, 1948. Chicagoans encountered the poetry of one writer, who lamented Shostakovich’s fate. “Bolo Thought Police,” Chicago Tribune, March 16, 1948. Soviet reaction to the crackdown, no doubt slanted, was offered to newspaper readers: “New Ridicule Heaped on Red Composers,” Los Angeles Times, February 16, 1948; “ ‘Pravda’ Readers in Tune with Music Crackdown,” New York Herald Tribune, February 15, 1948.
25. “3 Noted Soviet Composers Ousted from Posts, Paris Sources Report,” New York Times, March 29, 1948; “Composers Swept Out in Latest Red Purge,” Los Angeles Times, March 29, 1948.
26. “Russian Composers Confess Writing Antidemocratic Music,” Los Angeles Times, February 22, 1948.
27. “Shostakovich Joins Chorus of Apologists,” Washington Post, April 26, 1948. Note “Shostakovich again Apologizes for His Formal Compositions,” Chicago Tribune, April 26, 1948.
28. “Soviet Extols, Hits Composer on Same Day,” Washington Post, February 17, 1948.
29. In January 1936, Stalin and his associates left the Moscow theater before the conclusion of Lady Macbeth, which, since 1934, had been much admired and performed widely. Two days later, an editorial in Pravda, the Communist Party organ, denounced the piece as decadent and lacking the simplicity deemed essential for the Soviet masses. Laurel Fay writes that it was “singled out” for its “modernistic defects.” It would not be performed again until 1961. See Fay, 74–77, 83–85, 87–91; and Taruskin, Early Twentieth Century, 785–96, both highly illuminating.
30. “Composers in Trouble,” New York Herald Tribune, February 22, 1948. Note a second Thomson piece, “Soviet Esthetics,” New York Herald Tribune, May 2, 1948.
31. “Music and Ideologies,” Christian Science Monitor, February 26, 1948.
32. “The Stalinist Myth,” New York Times, April 18, 1948.
33. “Russia Tightens the Iron Curtain on Ideas,” New York Times, December 26, 1948. Note a critical piece by music critic Albert Goldberg, “The Sounding Board,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 1948.
34. “Shostakovich in Soviet Delegation to Attend Arts Conference Here,” New York Times, February 21, 1949.
35. “Shostakovich Coming to N.Y. for Peace Forum Next Month,” New York Herald Tribune, February 21, 1949.
36. Perspective and quotations from Lawrence S. Wittner, One World or None: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement through 1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 171.
37. Whether the Waldorf Conference was a Soviet-backed or a Communist-front initiative is a question that still generates debate. The 1949 event, unlike the so-called peace gatherings before (Wroclaw: 1948) and after (Paris: April 1949 and Stockholm: 1950), was organized by Americans.
38. “ ‘Intellectual’ Pinks Map Fight on U.S. Policy,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1949.
39. “Dr. Edman Abandons ‘World Peace’ Group,” New York Times, March 4, 1949. Hovde quoted in preceding and in “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949. Note “ ‘Intellectual’ Pinks Map Fight on U.S. Policy,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1949.
40. “Musicians Union to Shun Cultural Parley, Urges Shostakovich Seek to Live in U.S.,” New York Times, March 17, 1949.
41. “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949.
42. “5 Leaders Uphold Cultural Parley,” New York Times, March 21, 1949.
43. “Musicians Union to Shun Cultural Parley, Urges Shostakovich Seek to Live in U.S.,” New York Times, March 17, 1949. Signatories included conductors: Serge Koussevitzky, Bruno Walter, Dimitri Mitropoulos, Leonard Bernstein, Morton Gould; composers: Samuel Barber, Aaron Copland, Paul Creston, Walter Piston; instrumentalists: Vladimir Horowitz, Erica Morini, Artie Shaw, Albert Spalding.
44. “Legion Urges U.S. Deny Reds Entry,” New York Times, March 16, 1949. Rabbi Benjamin Schultz of the American Jewish League contacted Attorney General Tom Clark. Ibid.
45. See Wittner, 175–76.
46. “Kulturfest at the Waldorf: Soapbox for Red Propaganda,” New Leader (March 19, 1949): 1.
47. Note “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley’,” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949; and “Kulturfest at the Waldorf: Soapbox for Red Propaganda,” New Leader (March 19, 1949): 1.
48. “U.S. to Admit Red Delegates; Scores Aims of Parley Here,” New York Times, March 17, 1949. The decision was covered widely. See website.
49. “U.S. Granting Parley Visas to 22 from Russia, Satellites,” Washington Post, March 17, 1949; “U.S. Lets in 22 Reds for ‘Peace’ Parley,” Los Angeles Times, March 17, 1949.
50. The State Department claimed the delegates from Russia and the Eastern bloc, while Communists, were representing their countries in an “official” capacity, whereas those from Western Europe (and one from Brazil), although also Communists, were attending as private individuals, meaning they could be denied entry by American consuls abroad. “ ‘Peace’ Parley Here Says U.S. Bars Delegates,” New York Herald Tribune, March 22, 1949.
51. “Dewey Backs Counter Rally against Reds,” New York Herald Tribune, March 23, 1949.
52. Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999), 53.
53. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917–1950 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 507–8.
54. “Counter-Rally Being Organized Against Cultural Peace Parley,” New York Herald Tribune, March 20, 1949; “ ‘World Peace’ Setup Opposed,” Baltimore Sun, March 20, 1949.
55. For Hook’s supporters, see website.
56. “Rally’s Leaders Challenged by Counter-Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
57. “Pickets to Harass Cultural Meeting; Delegates Arrive,” New York Times, March 24, 1949. The Daily Worker supplied a contrary view. See website. Suburban New Yorkers read that Shostakovich had “his knuckles rapped in Russia.” “Week End at the Waldorf,” Newsday, March 22, 1949. Note “Freedom—without Illusions,” New York Herald Tribune, March 18, 1949.
58. “Pickets March, Sing and Pray in Demonstration at Waldorf,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949. Note “Tumult at the Waldorf,” Time (April 4, 1949): 21–23; “Peace; Everybody Wars over It,” Newsweek (April 4, 1949): 19–22.
59. “Democracy Defended at N.Y. Rally,” Baltimore Sun, March 26, 1949.
60. “Our Way Defended to 2,000 Opening ‘Culture’ Meeting,” New York Times, March 26, 1949.
61. Cousins quoted: “ ‘Peace’ Conference Picketed,” Christian Science Monitor, March 26, 1949; “ ‘Peace’ Rally Opens at Waldorf;
Pickets Demonstrate 12 Hours; Counter-Rally to Be Held Today,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949.
62. “Democracy Defended at N.Y. Rally,” Baltimore Sun, March 26, 1949. Note “Hundreds Picket in Rain Outside ‘World Peace’ Meeting,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1949.
63. See note 61.
64. “Our Way Defended to 2,000 Opening ‘Culture’ Meeting,” New York Times, March 26, 1949; “Hundreds Picket outside ‘World Peace’ Meeting,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 26, 1949.
65. “Hook Invades Shapley’s Room to Ask Apology,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949; “Professor Demands Dr. Shapley Apologize,” Boston Globe, March 26, 1949; “Hook Confronts Shapley in Latter’s Hotel Room,” New York Times, March 26, 1949.
66. “Keynoters Assess East-West Blame,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
67. “Shostakovich and 2 Colleagues Defend Soviet Control of Arts,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949. A similar version appeared in the Boston Globe.
68. “Panel Discussions of the Cultural Conference Delegates Cover a Wide Range of Subjects,” New York Times, March 27, 1949; “Culture Sessions Center on Conflict of East and West,” Ibid. Note Carol Brightman, Writing Dangerously: Mary McCarthy and Her World (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1992), 322–26.
69. “Shostakovich and 2 Colleagues Defend Soviet Control of Arts,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949.
70. “Anti-Red Session Is Hailed by Tobin,” New York Times, March 26, 1949. During World War II, Kerensky came to the United States, where he remained active in the anti-Soviet cause. “Kerensky Dies Here at 89,” June 12, 1970, Ibid.
71. Hook quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Counter Rally Defends ‘Peace’ Group’s Right to Meet,” Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1949.
72. Eastman quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Soviet is Attacked at Counter Rally,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
73. Kasenkina quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Soviet Is Attacked at Counter Rally,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
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