Immortality was also a belief of Druidism, the religious faith of the ancient Celtic inhabitants of Gaul (modern-day France) and the British Isles, which lasted from about the 2nd century BCE until the 2nd century CE, being strongly attacked by the Roman Empire; in certain parts of Britain, it remained until it was replaced in favor of Christianity several centuries later. (The Stonehenge monument in England is sometimes thought to be the product of the Druids, but it was erected perhaps 1,000 years prior to their first appearance.) The Druids were practically the only literate people in their areas, and had a strong priesthood class, which conducted rituals and performed sacrifices in sacred groves. They believed that at death, the soul passed into the body of a newborn child. (There have been latter-day attempts to revive Druidism, but it is doubtful whether they can be considered as part of the same historical lineage; again, the lack of written documents creates difficulties.)
So what relevance do these ancient religions have to me, in my quest? To me, they are critically important because they all testify to the belief in—and the development of—the belief in life after death. If I were evaluating this strictly on a “majority vote,” the notion of immortality—in one form or another—would be the clear “winner.”
Which means that I may remain hopeful that my beloved Sophia is still existing, somewhere…The only question is: Who can tell me more about where she might be?
Which brings me to the study of the major religions of the world.
* * *
Although there are certainly major disagreements, there appear to me to be twelve “world religions”:
Hinduism
Jainism
Buddhism
Taoism
Confucianism
Shinto
Judaism
Zoroastrianism
Christianity
Islam
Sikhism
Bahá’í
Although India was the birthplace for four major religions (including Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism), it is most closely associated with the religion known as Hinduism. The word “Hinduism” is basically derived from the Persian mispronunciation of the name of the river Sindhu, beyond which the people of India lived. Although practiced by more than 800 million people (making it the third-largest religion in the world), Hinduism remains largely a religion only of the East Indian people, with the vast majority of its adherents living there.
The Hindu literature is probably the most ancient such body of literature in the world, and in contrast to the earlier religions, it is not only written down (in the Sanskrit language), but written down in great detail. The oldest and most important such works are known as the Vedas (“Veda” literally means “knowledge” in Sanskrit), which are thought to have been revealed directly from God. There are four Vedas: the Rig Veda (recited by officiating priests at sacrifices; considered the most important of the Vedas), the Sama Veda (for the priests who chanted sacred hymns behind the officiating priests), the Yajur Veda (chanted by priests actually performing sacrificial actions), and the Atharva Veda (hymns for the priests supervising the sacrifices; the most recent of the Vedas, and considered the least important). Each Veda has four parts: Samhit?s (mantras/hymns and incantations), Br?hmanas (commentaries and explanations of the Samhit?s, with “practical” and detailed descriptions of religious rituals and conduct), ?ranyakas (a supplement and corrective to the Br?hmanas) and most importantly, the Upanishads—the “knowledge” portion of the Vedas, where the philosophical teachings are expounded. Since the Upanishads are the concluding portion of each of these four Scriptures, they came to be known as the “end” (anta) of the Vedas, or the Ved?nta.
But the Vedas are far from the only religious texts of the Hindus; there are also the eighteen major Puranas (“ancient,” texts that are thought to have actually been written between 300-1000 CE), which are long narratives in verse. These are “sectarian” writings, by different Hindu sects (primarily Vaishnavites and Shaivites), which mostly glorify the three major manifestations of God in Hinduism: Brahma (the creator), Vishna (the preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer). Traditionally, each Purana describes five subjects, including the original creation of the universe; its periodic destruction and re-creation; the different eras under the reigns of different Manus (rulers); the histories of the solar and lunar dynasties, and the genealogies of gods and sages. There is a Purana for Brahma, one for Vishna, one for Shiva, one for the sage N?rada, one for Linga (a representation of Shiva, infamously thought of as “phallic worship” in the West), and others, the most important of which is the Bhagavata (also known as the Srimad Bhagavatam), which is centered on devotion to the manifestation of God known as Krishna (who is Vishnu appearing in human form).
There are also later scriptures known as agamas, which exist for both the Vishu and Shiva traditions, as well as the Shakti (the female, Mother-God principle) tradition; these provide devotional, ritual, and intellectual development of the earlier scriptures. More well-known in the Western world are the scriptures called tantras, which contain philosophy, spiritual practices/disciplines, and attainments (siddhi, which are sometimes said to be supernatural) from such practices. There are highly symbolic and “magical” aspects to the tantric writings, which are easily given undue prominence. The tantras have also unfortunately become identified in the minds of many westerners with sexual activities used in a form of meditation (such as in the famous but earlier-written Kama Sutra, or “Love Scripture”), which is only a very small part of the tantric material.
The most popular Hindu scriptures, however, are the two epics: the R?m?yana (containing the adventures of Prince R?ma and his wife Sit?, in a world filled with gods and demons) and the Mah?bh?rata—probably the longest epic poem in the world—which is the story and moral tale of a long conflict between two ruling families of India. The most famous and widely-read portion of the Mah?bh?rata (from Book VI) is the famous Bhagavad-Git?, or “Song of God.” Written about two thousand years ago, the Git? tells (in dialogue form) a discussion between the prince and military leader Arjuna, and his charioteer Krishna (who is eventually discovered to be a manifestation of Vishnu).
We westerners often misunderstand Hindus when they speak of having “330 million Gods,” or similar figures, not realizing that these are all considered to be simply manifestations of the one God—the ultimate essence, and divine source. Even the so-called “Hindu Trinity” of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva are not thought of as being “three Gods,” but as three different aspects of viewing the one God. In Hinduism, it is thought that each individual contains the ?tman, or Supreme Self, which is identical with the divine essence known as Brahman, the ultimate cause of the universe. The present world is viewed as being Samsara: an endless and painful cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (reincarnation, that is). One’s actions in this world create one’s karma, or deeds, which causally affect our subsequent lives. The highest personal goal for the individual is considered to be absorption into God, the “universal spirit”—i.e., the merging of the Atman into the Brahman—and thus freedom from rebirth.
(The infamous Hindu caste system is related to this, wherein there are four classes of people: Brahmins or priests; kshatriyas, or rulers and warriors; vaisyas, or farmers and merchants; and sudras or “untouchables,” who performed the lowest forms of labor. Gandhi and the modern Indian government have greatly reduced the most objectionable aspects of such caste “stereotyping.”)
The traditional means of achieving this freedom from rebirth is through spiritual disciplines known as Yoga—which literally means “union”—with God, in the state of sam?dhi (absorption, ecstasy). Yogic meditation (dhy?na) may involve the use of a mantra (sacred word or formula, such as the famous Om) which is repeated to help focus the mind, as well as techniques of breath/vital energy control (pr?n?y?ma), and other practices. One well-known school of yoga is Kundalin? (“coiled up,” like a serpen
t), which focuses meditation on seven points known as chakras, starting from the base of the spine, and working up to the top of the skull. One is expected to practice such disciplines under the guidance of a Guru, or illumined teacher.
In addition to Yoga, traditional East Indian natural medicine (known as Ayurveda) is making a comeback with the support of practitioners such as medical doctors like Deepak Chopra and Vasant Lad.
How do I react to Hinduism? As one who is accustomed to the idea of monks and religious undergoing privation in this life in the interest of achieving greater happiness in Heaven (“lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven,” as Jesus said in Matt 6:20), it is amazing to me that Hindu mystics are content to live in poverty and discomfort in this life, when their goal is simply the extinction of themselves as a conscious, individual personality. The glimpses they have of sam?dhi in their practices must be very powerful, to motivate them (From my standpoint, however, anything that falls short of personal existence in an afterlife—and the possibility of reunion with Sophia—does not interest me.)
The next Indian religion was Jainism, which has about 4-10 million adherents (depending on whom you ask), mostly living in India. It was founded in the 6th century BCE by Mahavira, who was one of a line of 24 earlier prophet-founders. Unlike the Buddha (who came to renounce the path of severe asceticism), Mahavira practiced asceticism all of his life. Jainism has something that I had never encountered in a “religion” before: Jains apparently reject belief in God, and thus this religion is sometimes (though perhaps not accurately) referred to as “atheistic.” (Possibly, they are just rejecting particular conceptions of God, such as those of Hinduism.) Be that as it may, they seem to be primarily guided by their notion of the “nature of things,” and following the inner Life Force, rather than by any notions of God. However, they do believe in reincarnation, and view all life forms—from the smallest bug, to the greatest ascetic monk—as possessing souls, which are capable of evolving upwards to the highest state. Thus, as with Hinduism, they believe in transmigration (the belief that humans and animals are all part of the chain of rebirth); Mahavira himself was supposedly a lion before his rebirth. Like Hindus, their goal in life is to progress up the chain of life, and ultimately be freed from the cycle of rebirth.
Their most famous and distinctive doctrine, however, is clearly that of ahimsa (“non-injury” or “non-violence”) to all living beings; Mahatma Gandhi may have been substantially influenced by this philosophy (he had a Jain teacher in his youth). This concern for life is extended to all creatures—even microbes that are invisible to the naked eye—and practitioners of some sects may even wear veils or cloths over their mouths to avoid inadvertently swallowing an insect, as well as refrain from using electric fans or lighting fires (which might kill flying insects). Certain occupations are also forbidden to them, such as those that produce leather, alcohol, poisons (including most chemicals), charcoal, wood, and numerous others. They strive to seek complete non-violence towards all life, although they recognize that this is not completely realizable; consequently, they distinguish between different categories of violence such as intentional violence (samkalpajahimsa), occupational violence (arambhajahimsa), and violence whose purpose is to prevent violence (virodhihimsa). Although human survival obviously requires that some form of life be killed for food—Jains are obligated to be vegetarians—it is preferable to refrain from killing sentient beings (i.e., creatures that have feeling and sensation) and to take a form of life (plants) that has only one sense-organ, rather than five.
They believe in ascetic practice, but that their religion is not necessarily appropriate for the masses, and that not all persons can achieve liberation in their present lifetime. Thus, they have much stricter rules for conduct of monks than for lay people—monks taking an extremely rigorous set of vows. Believing in the interconnection of all life, they also opposed the Hindu caste system, from earliest times.
The next religion to originate in India (shortly after Jainism) was Buddhism, which perhaps has 300 million practitioners (making it the world’s fourth-largest religion) in a variety of sects. Buddhism is an extremely complex subject, not the least because it has traveled so far from its native India, and has changed and adapted along the way. In its original forms, however, it is straightforward: An Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama was born around 560 BCE; as normal for such a young man, he married and had a son. Although his father attempted to shield him from all unpleasant sights, Siddhartha saw, on successive days: an old man; a sick man; and finally, a corpse, causing him to realize that this ultimate fate lay in store for all humans. When on the fourth day he saw a monk with shaven head, simple robe, and begging bowl, he renounced his former life, and left to search for truth. He joined a band of ascetics, and attempted to outdo them in every privation they subjected themselves to. Finally, he grew so weak from hunger that he nearly died, and was saved by eating a bowl of rice gruel given to him by a passerby.
Realizing that he needed to find a path that was a compromise between his former life of indulgent living, and the way of the extreme ascetic, he chose to follow what he later termed the “Middle Way,” navigating between the two extremes. Sensing that he was on the verge of a great achievement, he sat in meditation underneath a tree, vowing not to rise until he had achieved salvation. And thus, as dawn broke, he achieved the state of intuitive realization that came to be known as enlightenment, and was thereafter known as the Buddha—the “awakened one.”
Although later traditions build statues of the Buddha and offer veneration to him, the Buddha is not “worshipped” as if he were a God; on the contrary, he is viewed as simply being a “man who woke up” (as comparative religions scholar Huston Smith puts it). He founded a monastic order, and impressed upon them the Four Noble Truths:
1.Life is suffering (Sanskrit “duhkha”); sorrowful, dissatisfying.
2.There is a cause for this suffering, which is desire or craving.
3.There can be cessation of this suffering.
4.There is a way to attain this release/cessation.
The cause of suffering is desire—the fact that we are attached to specific goals and objectives, and we become unhappy when they are not achieved, or only achieved partially. We must come to see the emptiness (S?nyat?) in all things, that they have no continuing substance to which we should be attached; these things exist in the mind only—”Our lives are the creation of our minds,” it says in the key Buddhist scripture, the Dhammapada. Obtaining release from this condition of desire is achieving the state of Enlightenment (or Nirvana in Sanskrit)—and thus to become a Buddha oneself—which is the goal of Buddhism. The way to attain this release was to follow the Noble Eightfold Path: right view; right intention (or aspiration); right speech; right action/conduct; right livelihood; right effort (or self-control); right mindfulness; and right concentration/meditation. The Buddha’s teachings (or Dharma, in Sanskrit) were followed by his Sangha (monastic order), who daily recited three vows: “I take my refuge in the Buddha; I take my refuge in the Dharma; I take my refuge in the Sangha.” His monks (and nuns as well, since women were eventually allowed to form their own order) survived by humbly begging for their food, and were expected to observe prohibitions against killing (including killing of animals for food); stealing; unchastity; lying; use of intoxicants, and so on.
The Buddha pointedly refused to make any pronouncements about God, the soul, the eternity or non-eternity of the world, and so on, because such discussions were not “profitable” or beneficial—he told such questioners that he was simply teaching the path to release from suffering. He compared people who asked such questions to a man wounded by a poisoned arrow, who refused to have the arrow removed until he knew who shot the arrow; what kind of arrow it was; how the arrow was made, and so on—such a man would die, before finding the answers to his questions.
In his final message to his disciples as he was dying, he counse
led them to, “Be ye lamps unto yourselves,” and reminded them that “All conditional things are impermanent. Work out your salvation with diligence.” Buddha himself wrote nothing—in his famous “Flower Sermon,” he did not even speak, but simply opened his hand to reveal a small lotus flower, which supposedly brought his chief disciple to enlightenment. The encapsulation of his teaching into specific points, however, would have made it easy to memorize accurately. His disciples later wrote voluminously, these scriptures being known as the Tripitaka or “Three Baskets,” consisting of Sutras (teachings of Buddha), Vinayas (the disciplines), and the Abhidharma (commentaries and essays).
The viewpoint of Buddhism about life after death is rather confusing, and perhaps contradictory. On the one hand, the Buddha apparently taught the doctrine of an-?tman (“No Soul”)—the idea that what we call our “self” is impermanent, and insubstantial—so he apparently contradicted the Hindu notion of the Atman, or eternal divine self within man. On the other hand, Buddhism also speaks of karma, and of enlightenment as being a “release from the cycle of birth and death” (Samsara, similar to what the Hindus taught), which implies belief in reincarnation. It’s difficult to know what to think: Buddhism closest to what Siddhartha Gautama probably taught—known as Theravada, “the way of the Elders”—eventually died out in India, as did the twin branches (the M?dhyamika school founded by Nagarjuna, and the Yogacara or “consciousness only” school) of the Mahayana or “Greater Vehicle” school. Buddhism found a fertile ground in Southeast Asia, however, as well as China, Tibet (whose variety of Buddhism definitely taught belief in reincarnation), Korea, and Japan (which has schools such as Zen that teach no direct metaphysical doctrines whatsoever; but which also has schools such as the Pure Land sect, which seems to have a belief in an afterlife somewhat like Christian conceptions of Heaven). From the standpoint of my quest, some avenues of Buddhism seem promising, and others not at all.
Beyond Heaven and Earth Page 13