by Stephen Fry
Evans was what we would recognize as a true archaeologist, whereas Schliemann … Well, his practices were regarded as somewhat drastic even in his own day. We are all familiar with the gentle, achingly slow digging and delicate brushing that archaeologists insist upon. Every site painstakingly pegged out with string, every layer preserved and minutely catalogued. Schliemann had no patience for that kind of thing; he swung his spades with a violent zest that approached vandalism.
Schliemann’s obsession from first to last was in finding the ‘true locations’ of Homeric legend. He was to excavate sites in the Peloponnese, where his search for Mycenaean treasures certainly resulted in some spectacular finds. In 1876 a gold funerary mask of stunning beauty and workmanship was unearthed and instantly designated by Schliemann (on no compelling evidentiary grounds) ‘The Mask of Agamemnon’. We now know that this artefact predated the Trojan War, and therefore the life of Agamemnon, by a good four hundred years. Schliemann dug up much of Odysseus’s home island of Ithaca too, but it was his work in the Troad that was first to make his name ring round the world. His search for Troy took him to Turkey in the early 1870s, where he concentrated on the area around the town of Hissarlik, a site that had been suggested to him by the British archaeologist Frank Calvert. Here he uncovered evidence of nine buried cities. One glad day he happened on a trove of gold that he announced to be ‘Priam’s Treasure’, incorporating what he declared were ‘The Jewels of Helen’ (subsequent research has shown them to be a full thousand years older than that).
Boring old historical truth and evidence were more or less irrelevant to this outrageous fudger, fantasist, fabricator and outright smuggler, but this is not to deny the value of his work, especially the effect of his fanfares of self-publicity on scholarship and the popular imagination. His methods (including the cavalier use of dynamite) were so damaging to the archaeological record that successive professionals have wryly congratulated him on achieving what even the Greek armies couldn’t – the complete levelling and destruction of Troy.
Nonetheless, the discovery of so many strata of Hittite and Trojan civilizations was proof at least of a flourishing civilization and a great city, with evidence of devastating fire and siege, consistent with the Homeric canon. In recent times, a pioneering 2001 German exhibition, Troy: Dream and Reality, morphed into the British Museum’s hugely successful 2019 Troy: Myth and Reality, which displayed objects excavated by Schliemann as well as many later discoveries. The experience of walking through these exhibitions sparked, in me at least, a powerful sense of a real people with real lives. The artefacts and the reconstructions of Trojan life of course cannot prove the contention that Troy fell as a result of the abduction of a Spartan princess, but it is worth remembering that many a kingdom or empire in recorded history has fallen on account of marriages and dynastic alliances gone wrong. Another possibility – given the strategic and commercial importance of Troy perched as the city was on the Dardanelles strait, the Hellespont – is that some kind of conflict over tariffs and the passage of commerce erupted between the kingdoms of the western and eastern Aegean. Hard for us to credit it, so sophisticated and wise are we today, but back then the primitive fools could find themselves sucked into trade wars … Ha!
Naturally, the nuances and refinements of real scholarship, hard science and proper archaeology have blunted and refuted many of Schliemann’s more far-fetched and exaggerated claims, but his Barnum-like huckstering and showmanship have ensured that the Hissarlik site is looked on with favour, and that – give or take, more or less, all things being equal – the world agrees that the siege and fall of Troy 3,200 years ago might be looked on as historical fact.
I shan’t dive with any depth into the matter of Homer’s life: the classical Greeks thought he existed, and that he wrote down his two great epic poems; later scholars, in the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries, became convinced (on the basis of close philological and linguistic textual scrutiny) first that these works were orally transmitted, and then that their makeup suggested they were in fact largely improvised.fn9
In my opinion, the broken line of transmission from the time of Troy and Mycenae to the Archaic and Classical ages, thanks to the collapse of the Bronze Age with its accompanying loss of literacy, is far from a disaster. It is the intriguing distance, the blend of history, mystery and myth, the interplay of the particular and ‘the universal that makes the Homeric experience so rich and compelling. The action is played out on the golden horizon between reality and legend, the beguiling penumbra where fable and fact coexist. It is this that endows Homeric epic with the minute, realistic and vivid detailing that so animates and convinces, yet also gives us the glorious symbolism and dreamlike depth that only myth allows, with its divine interventions, supernatural episodes and superhuman heroes.
List of Characters
GODS AND MONSTERS
Olympian Gods
APHRODITE Goddess of love. Offspring of Ouranos’s blood and seed. Aunt of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus. Wife of Hephaestus. Lover of Ares. Mother (by Anchises) of Aeneas. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Awarded Apple of Discord by Paris in return for Helen. Saves Paris from death at the hands of Menelaus; withdraws favour from him after his slaying of Corythus. Wounded by Diomedes. Along with Apollo, Ares and Artemis, a protector of Troy. Bewitches Helen in an attempt to expose the secret of the wooden horse.
APOLLO Archer god, and god of harmony. Son of Zeus and the Titaness Leto. Twin of Artemis. Half-brother of Ares, Athena, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Hermes and Persephone. Father of Asclepius, Hymenaios, Lycomedes and Tenes. Slayer of Python and establisher of the Pythia’s oracle at Delphi. Builds Troy’s walls with Poseidon; then infects the city with plague when Laomedon reneges on payment. Later, along with Aphrodite, Ares and Artemis, a protector of Troy. Answers Chryses’ prayers and strikes down the Greeks with plague. Hater of Achilles for his slaying of Tenes and Troilus; helps Euphorbus and Hector slay Patroclus, and Paris slay Achilles. Withdraws favour from Paris after his slaying of Corythus. Blesses and curses Cassandra. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
ARES God of war. Son of Zeus and Hera. Brother of Hephaestus. Half-brother of Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Hermes and Persephone. Father of the Amazons, notably Hippolyta and Penthesilea; of Deimos (Dread) and Phobos (Fear and Panic); and of Oenomaus. Lover of Aphrodite. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Along with Dionysus, a curser of the house of Cadmus. Along with Aphrodite, Apollo and Artemis, a protector of Troy. Wounded by Diomedes.
ARTEMIS Goddess of chastity and the chase. Daughter of Zeus and the Titaness Leto. Twin of Apollo. Half-sister of Ares, Athena, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Hermes and Persephone. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Along with Aphrodite, Apollo and Ares, a protector of Troy. Sensitive to slights: sender of the Calydonian Boar; slayer of Orion; preventer of the Greeks sailing to Troy. But apparent sparer of Iphigenia.
ATHENA Goddess of wisdom. Daughter of Zeus and the Oceanid Metis. Half-sister of Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Hermes and Persephone. Bearer of the aegis. Bestows on Troy its protective Palladium. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Insufficiently charming for Paris to award her the Apple of Discord. Along with Hephaestus, Hera and Poseidon, an abettor of the Greeks against Troy. Dotes greatly on Achilles, Diomedes and Odysseus. Interferes in Achilles’ slaying of Hector and Troilus, and Pandarus’s attempted shooting of Menelaus. Inspires Odysseus with the idea of the wooden horse.
DEMETER Goddess of fertility and the harvest, of hearth and home. Daughter of Kronos and Rhea. Sister of Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus. Mother (by Zeus) of Persephone, whose absence in the underworld she mourns for six months each year. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
DIONYSUS God of dissipation an disorder. Son of Zeus and the mortal Semele. Half-brother of Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Hephaestus, Hermes and Persephone. Suckled as an infant by the Hyades. Along with Ares, a curser of the hou
se of Cadmus. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
HADESfn1 God of the underworld. Son of Kronos and Rhea. Brother of Demeter, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus. Abductor and husband of Persephone. Imprisons Pirithous and Theseus for attempting to kidnap Persephone.
HEPHAESTUS God of fire and the forge. Son of Zeus and Hera. Brother of Ares. Half-brother of Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Hermes and Persephone. Husband of Aphrodite and Charis. As an infant, cast out of Olympus by Hera and lamed; rescued and tended by Thetis. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Creator of marvels, including the armour of Achilles and Memnon; the sceptre of Agamemnon; and the sword of Peleus. Along with Athena, Hera and Poseidon, an abettor of the Greeks against Troy. Boils Scamander to make him release Achilles.
HERA Queen of Heaven and goddess of matrimony. Daughter of Kronos and Rhea. Sister of Demeter, Hades, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus. Wife of Zeus, and mother (by him) of Ares and Hephaestus. Punishes Aeacus for being Zeus’s illegitimate son. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Insufficiently charming for Paris to award her the Apple of Discord. Along with Athena, Hephaestus and Poseidon, an abettor of the Greeks against Troy.
HERMES Messenger of the gods, and god of trickery. Son of Zeus and the Pleiad Maia. Half-brother of Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Hephaestus and Persephone. Father of Autolycus, Eudoros, Myrtilus and (some say) Pan. Great-grandfather of Odysseus and Sinon. Inventor of the lyre. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Enlists Paris to judge which goddess merits the Apple of Discord. Enlisted by Zeus to teach Aphrodite a lesson. Supports Priam in recovering the body of Hector from Achilles.
HESTIA Goddess of hearth and home. Daughter of Kronos and Rhea. Sister of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Poseidon and Zeus. Helps officiate at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
POSEIDON God of the sea. Inventor (and god) of horses. Son of Kronos and Rhea. Brother of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia and Zeus. Father of Bellerophon, Cychreus, Cycnus, Orion, Pegasus and (possibly) of Theseus. Grandfather of Nestor and Palamedes. Lover of Pelops; helps him win Hippodamia. Builds Troy’s walls with Apollo; then sends sea monster to devour Hesione when Laomedon reneges on payment. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis; the horses Balius and Xanthus his gift to the bridegroom. Along with Athena, Hephaestus and Hera, an abettor of the Greeks against Troy.
ZEUS King of the Gods. Son of Kronos, whom he overthrows, and Rhea. Brother of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia and Poseidon. Husband of Hera. Father of the gods Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Hermes and Persephone. Father of the mortals Aeacus, Dardanus, Helen, Heracles, Perseus, Pirithous, Polydeuces and Sarpedon. Progenitor of numerous heroes of the Trojan War, including Achilles, Ajax, Odysseus and Teucer. Wielder of thunderbolts. Possessor of the oracle at Dodona. Indebted to Thetis for rescuing him from his rebellious Olympian family. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Bestows ant-people and judgeship of the underworld on Aeacus; Aphrodite on Anchises; catasterization on Ganymede and the Dioscuri; divine horses on Tros; eternal torment on Tantalus; immortality (but not eternal youth) on Tithonus; the privilege of awarding the Apple of Discord on Paris; a sword forged by Hephaestus on Peleus. Not entirely successful in preventing the other OLYMPIAN GODS (or himself) from meddling in the Trojan War.
Other Gods and Titans
ASCLEPIUS God of medicine. Mortal son of Apollo and Coronis. Raised by Chiron. Father of Machaon and Podalirius. Temporarily slain by Zeus for his hubris in resurrecting the dead; later immortalized and catasterized by him.
EOS Titan goddess of the dawn. Sister of Helios and Selene. Progenitor of Cinyras. Lover of Tithonus; mother (by him) of Memnon. Begs eternal life for Tithonus from Zeus, but not eternal youth. Transforms Tithonus into a grasshopper.
ERIS Goddess of discord and disarray. Daughter of Nyx (Night) and Erebus (Darkness). Sister of assorted shadowy gods and immortals, including the Hesperides, Hypnos (Sleep), the Moirai (Fates), Moros (Destiny), Nemesis (Retribution) and Thanatos (Death). Uninvited and unwelcome guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Causes the disagreement between the OLYMPIAN GODS that gives rise to the Trojan War.
EROS Youthful god of sexual desire. Son of Ares and Aphrodite. Possessor of devastating bow and arrows.
FATES See Moirai.
GAIA The primordial earth. Daughter of Chaos. Mother of Ouranos and Pontus. Mother (by Ouranos) of the first generation of Titans (including Kronos, Oceanus and Tethys), and the giants. Mother (by Pontus) of Nereus. Mother (by Tartarus) of Typhon. Bestower of the Golden Apples of the Hesperides on Zeus and Hera.
HELIOS Titan god of the sun. Brother of Eos and Selene. Grandfather of Medea.
HESPERIDES The three nymphs of the evening. Daughters of Nyx (Night) and Erebus (Darkness). Sisters of assorted shadowy gods and immortals, including Eris (Discord), Hypnos (Sleep), Moros (Destiny), Nemesis (Retribution) and Thanatos (Death). Keen gardeners; propagators of magical golden apples – including the Apple of Discord.
HYMENAIOS Also known as Hymen. Youthful god of wedding ceremonies; one of Eros’s retinue. Son of Apollo and the Muse Urania.
IRIS Goddess of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. Sister of the Harpies. Cousin of the Gorgons.
KRONOS Ancient king of the gods. Titan son of Gaia and Ouranos. Brother of Oceanus and Tethys. Father (by Rhea) of Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon and Zeus, and (by Phylira) of Chiron. Overthrower of Ouranos. Overthrown by Zeus.
MOIRAI The three Fates: Clotho, who spins the thread of life; Lachesis, who measures its length; and Atropos, who cuts it. Daughters of Nyx (Night) and Erebus (Darkness). Sisters of assorted shadowy gods and immortals, including Eris (Discord), the Hesperides, Hypnos (Sleep), Moros (Destiny), Nemesis (Retribution) and Thanatos (Death).
MOROS Doom or Destiny. Son of Nyx (Night) and Erebus (Darkness). Brother of assorted shadowy gods and immortals, including Eris (Discord), the Hesperides, Hypnos (Sleep), the Moirai (Fates), Nemesis (Retribution) and Thanatos (Death). All-powerful, all-knowing controller of the cosmos. Most feared entity in creation, even by immortals.
NEMESIS Goddess of retribution. Daughter of Nyx (Night) and Erebus (Darkness). Sister of assorted shadowy gods and immortals, including Eris (Discord), the Hesperides, Hypnos (Sleep), the Moirai (Fates), Moros (Destiny) and Thanatos (Death). Punisher of hubris. According to some, the mother (by Zeus) of Helen.
NEREUS Ancient shape-shifting sea god. Son of Gaia and Pontus. Father (by the Oceanid Doris) of the Nereids, including Thetis. Wrestling partner of Heracles. Provider of childcare advice to his daughter Thetis.
OCEANUS Ancient god of the sea. Titan son of Gaia and Ouranos. Brother of Kronos and Tethys. Father (by Tethys) of the Oceanids. Grandfather of Atlas, Prometheus, Thetis and Zeus.
OURANOS The primordial sky. Son of Gaia. Father (by Gaia) of the first generation of Titans (including Kronos, Oceanus and Tethys), and the giants. Overthrown and castrated by his son Kronos. Progenitor of Aphrodite (from his blood and seed).
PAN Goat-footed god of nature and wild things. Son (some say) of Hermes and the nymph Dryope. Lover of pipe music.
PERSEPHONE Queen of the Underworld and goddess of spring. Daughter of Zeus and Demeter. Half-sister of Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Dionysus, Hephaestus and Hermes. Abducted and married by Hades, with whom she spends six months of every year. Target of unsuccessful kidnapping plot by Pirithous and Theseus.
PROMETHEUS Titan brother of Atlas. Friend of humankind. Foreteller of the greatness of Thetis’s son. Guest at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
SCAMANDER River god of the Troad. Husband of the nymph Idaea. Father of Callirrhoë and Teucer. Grandfather of Ganymede and Ilus. Bestower of great fertility on the plain of Ilium. A protector of Troy. Nearly kills Achilles. Boiled by Hephaestus.
SELENE Titan goddess of the moon. Sister of Eos and Helios.
TETHYS Ancient goddess of the sea. Titaness daughter of Gaia and Ouranos. Sister of Kronos and Oceanus. Mother (by Oceanus) of the Oceanids. Grandmother of
Atlas, Chiron, Prometheus, Thetis and Zeus. Transforms Aesacus into a seabird.
Other Immortals
CHIRON Greatest and wisest of centaurs. Son of Kronos and the Oceanid Phylira. Father of Endeis. Grandfather of Peleus and Telamon. Healer. Tutor of heroes, including Achilles, Asclepius, Jason and Peleus. Hosts the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Bestows a spear with miraculous powers on Peleus.
ENDEIS Nymph. Daughter of Chiron and the nymph Chariclo. Wife of Aeacus. Mother of Peleus and Telamon. Implicated in the death of her stepson Phocus.
HYADES Nymphs of North Africa who suckled the infant Dionysus. Rewarded by Zeus with catasterization.
NEREIDS Sea nymphs. Daughters of Nereus and the Oceanid Doris. Cousins of Poseidon. They include: Psamathe, mother of Phocus; Thetis, mother of Achilles.
OCEANIDS Sea nymphs. Daughters of Oceanus and Tethys. Cousins of Poseidon. They include: Doris, mother of the Nereids; Metis, mother of Athena; Phylira, mother of Chiron; Pleione, mother of the Pleiades; and Styx.
PLEIADES Seven heavenly daughters of the Titan Atlas and the Oceanid Pleione. They include: Electra, mother of Dardanus; Maia, mother of Hermes; Merope, wife of Sisyphus; Sterope, mother of Hippodamia; Taygeta, progenitor of Tyndareus.
STYX Oceanid. Goddess of the river of hate in the underworld. Her waters bestow invulnerability on mortals.
THETIS Nereid. Daughter of Nereus and Doris. Saviour of Zeus by summoning the Hecatonchires to protect him from his rebellious Olympian family. Saviour of the infant Hephaestus when Hera cast him down from Olympus. Desired by all the gods until Prometheus prophesies her son will be greater than his father. Wrestled into wedlock by Peleus; their wedding the last great gathering of the immortals. Protective mother of Achilles: attempts, to make him invulnerable by immersing him in the Styx, and by commissioning his armour from Hephaestus; to cheat his destiny by concealing him under the care of Lycomedes; to warn him not to arouse the enmity of Apollo; to persuade Zeus to tilt the balance of the Trojan War against the Greeks and teach Agamemnon a lesson.