The joints of the body are prevented from collapsing by the reciprocal tension of the muscles arranged in front and behind them. In this drawing, the hinge joint of the knee is flexed by the dominant contractions of the hamstring muscles (A). The gracilis (B) and the sartorius (C), which move obliquely across the inner thigh to their insertions in the upper tibia bone, aid in this flexion. On the other hand, the rectus femoris (D) and the vastus internus (E), which are inserted into the anterior or front of the tibia through the patella (F) and its ligament (G), maintain a synergetic and stabilizing countermovement. Since they are minimally active and away from the light source, Michelangelo has subdued them through an overall middle tone.
The foot is a lever that has its fulcrum at the ankle (H). Although here pictured at rest, the powerful Achilles tendon (I) which is attached to the base of the calcaneus or heel bone (J), together with the soleus (K) and gastrocnemius or calf muscles (L), can pull up the heel to place you on your toes. The long, subcutaneous posterior portion of the shaft of the tibia bone (M) separates this group of calf muscles from the tibialis anterior (N). The tibialis anterior muscle, with its inner tendon of insertion (O) in the foot helps put you back on your heels.
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564)
STUDY FOR LEFT LEG OF DAY
black chalk
16 1/8″ × 8 1/8″ (410 × 206 mm)
Teyler Museum, Haarlem
4
THE FOOT
Structural Points, Lateral Aspect
It is thought that the most recent major evolution of the human foot took place between ten to twenty million years ago in Asia and Africa with the development of the arches as efficient levers for walking on two legs.
It is evident that Dürer had the underlying bony structure in mind when he drew the foot. The tibia (A) and fibula (B) of the leg sit upon the astragalus or talus (C), the keystone and summit of the longitudinal arch of the foot. The arched vault of the foot is supported at its ends by the calcaneus, also called the os calcis or heel bone (D) at the back and by the heads of all five metatarsals (E) at the toes.
The transverse arch (F) results from the shape of the tarsal bones of the distal row: the first (G), second (H), and third (I) cuneiforms; the cuboid (J); and the base of the metatarsal bones (K). The astragalus (C) is primarily related to the navicular bone (L), the three cuneiform bones (G-I), and the three inner metatarsal bones and their phalanges, all known as the ankle system.
The flatter, more rigid heel system—made up of the calcaneus (D), the cuboid (J), and the outer two metatarsal bones and their phalanges—hugs the ground and supports the moving foot. The arched and more flexible ankle system adds flexibility.
Dürer might have been thinking of the lower instep line of a shoe when he drew the spiral line (M) just behind the root of the toes. Constant flexion of the foot and extension of the toes in walking will cause a crease in your shoe at this point.
Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528)
RIGHT FOOT AND ITS BONE STRUCTURE
charcoal
7 5/8″ × 11 5/16″ (194 × 287 mm)
British Museum, London
Structural Points, Medial Aspect
Looking at a sketch of the foot by Domenichino, the long, graded vertical highlight (A) clearly places the tibia bone of the lower leg on top of the arch of the foot. The medial malleolus or inner ankle (B) of the tibia, sits astride the astragalus (C). The calcaneum or os calcis (D) forms the base of support at the heel and the bones of the metatarsals (E) and tarsus (F) make up the larger anterior base of support of the arch. This forward portion projects the top or dorsum of the foot (G) downward, forming the more cylindrical and convex instep of the foot.
At the toes, the foot is broader and flatter. It is widest at the level of the head of the metatarsal of the big toe (H). Domenichino has placed his shading behind this mass. It forms a narrow neck (I) where it meets the first phalanx of the big toe.
In the inner concavity, at the waist of the sole of the foot, Domenichino has indicated the principal muscle of this area, the abductor hallucis (J). This muscle moves from heel to the first phalange of the big toe and rounds out the inner arch.
The instep of the lower foot (K) is low, and the so-called “water line” (L), which extends from the base of the heel to the end of the toes, almost touches the ground. In the upper foot, the arch is high and provides a more flexible base of support for walking.
Domenichino has placed an oblique accent (M) below the inner ankle, thus indicating the groove between the bone of the inner ankle (B), the sustentaculum tali eminence of the calcaneus or heel bone (N) just above the abductor hallucis (J). His knowledge of anatomy also helps him to show direction and linear movement in the foot, creating a greater interest in that area.
Domenichino (1581-1641)
TWO STUDIES OF A LEFT LEG
chalk
15″ × 9 3/4″ (381 × 247 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Structural Points, Superior Aspect
You must be able to create illusions in figure drawing, such as a feeling of motion or, through foreshortening, a sense that a part is moving back into space. To be able to do this, you must know and understand anatomy thoroughly. You must also be able to move from a simple statement of the action to the more complex details, and must be able to juggle many things at once in your mind as you draw.
In the raised foot, Pontormo has emphasized the downward curve of the tibia (A) and exaggerated the upper surface of its internal malleolus (B). Outward of this mass, he starts the highline of the foot. This line moves over the tops of the inner tarsal bones (C), and down the top of the metatarsal (D), and along the proximal and distal phalanges (E) of the big toe. Since his dominant light is from the left, he places his strong plane break along the edge of this line. On the up plane of the instep, he grades the light up to the highline and to the ankle, where this trapezoid-like dorsal mass interlocks with the internal (B) and external malleolus (F).
The distal phalanges of the toes come to a point at the longer second toe (G). All the toes tend to converge upon this toe as, in the hand, all the fingers converge upon the middle finger.
Pontormo also adds a base upon which to place the figure so that we might become aware of how far the model is above or below our eye level. The platform of the model stand is usually below eye level, as it is here. Pontormo has aided the illusion by placing the heel of the forward pointing foot above, as well as behind, the front ball of the foot.
Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1556)
STUDY OF LOWER PART OF FEMALE NUDE
red chalk
15 9/16″ × 10 1/4″ (395 × 260 mm)
Uffizi, Florence
Structural Points, Inferior Aspect
In footprints on the beach, the observant artist will have noticed the variations in the sole of the foot, known as the plantar surface. The shape is broadest at the front at the line of the metatarsal heads (A), narrower at the heel (B), and most narrow along the long outer rim (C). The middle portion of the inner side of the arch (L) does not touch the ground. Longitudinally, the foot may be divided into thirds made up of the heel (D), the inner arch (E), and the toes and their pads (F).
When you walk, your weight is transferred over the surface of the foot in a series of points starting with the heel. As the heel strikes the ground at the outer edge (G), the weight of the body is moved along the outer rim of the foot via the base (H) and head (I) of the metatarsal of the little toe, to the undersurface of the little toe (J) to the big toe (K).
The sole is covered by pads of fat that protect the four layers of muscle that flex, abduct, adduct, and stabilize the foot much as in the hand. Just below the surface, long ligaments act as tie rods and springs for the longitudinal arch. On the surface, Rubens uses the alternating size, direction, and value intensity of the contour lines over the transverse flexion folds (L) to express shape and depth. He brea
ks the direction of these lines at the longitudinal furrow (M) that runs through the center of the sole or from heel to toe.
The proximal phalanges of the fingers (N) are about as long as the entire length of the toes (O). The movable portion of the hand makes up half its length. In the process of evolution, the movable portion of the foot has been reduced to about one third of the total length of the foot. The big toe, which corresponds to the thumb, has lost most of its mobility, and the little toe seems to be on the way out, evolutionally speaking.
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
NUDE MAN RAISING HIS BODY, STUDY OF LOWER LEG AND FOOT
black chalk
8 3/16″ × 11 11/16″ (207 × 295 mm)
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Muscles, Lateral Aspect
In this finely modeled foot, Domenichino has carried his dominant plane break down along the edge of the peroneus longus (A), to the external malleolus (B) of the fibula, over the egg-shaped and often bluish extensor digitorum brevis (C), and on to the long ridge of the abductor digiti minimi (D), the abductor of the little toe.
Domenichino’s secondary value movements include the hollow (E) between the tibialis anterior (F), and the extensor digitorum longus (G). As a line between the functions, the values are only lightly suggested.
The large area at the top of the foot is broken up by the oblique movement of the internal or long saphenous vein (H) above, and by the external or short saphenous vein (I) and its tributaries, coming from behind the external malleolus (B). But these details have been subordinated to the larger massing and the simple two-value concept of the foot.
Domenichino (1581-1641)
LEFT FOOT
chalk
8 5/8″ × 13 1/2″ (218 × 343 mm)
Reproduced by gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen
Royal Library, Windsor
Muscles, Medial Aspect
Rembrandt used his vast anatomical knowledge in designing his powerful and simplified line and wash drawings. The tendon of the tibialis anterior (A) carries a linear flow from leg to foot in a curve made up of a series of straight lines. Rembrandt turns the outside corner at the heel (B)—not abruptly, but with a similar series of transitional linear movements.
Brief halftone washes define the down plane of the knee (C), the flat inner mass of the tibia (D), which sets off the muscles of the calf (E) above the Achilles tendon (F) at the down plane of the side of the leg.
At the inner side of the foot, a curved wash covers the narrow area of the abductor hallucis (G), and peaks above at the level of the tubercle of the scaphoid or navicular bone (H).
Anatomical or design meaning can be found even in Rembrandt’s seemingly most idle scratchings. Two little lines (I) behind and below the medial malleolus (J) of the inner leg suggest the size and direction of the internal annular ligament. This ligament, similar in function to the anterior annular ligament (K) above, extends from the medial malleolus (J) to the calcaneus or heel (L), and holds in the three long flexor tendons passing at the side of the ankle.
The varied levels of the phalanges of the toes are used to create rhythm, movement, and interest. The long slash (M) along the base of the right foot, that might seem like an afterthought or mistake to the casual eye, defines the upper level of the abductor digiti minimi and turns a flat and dull area into a movement of two planes.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
FEMALE NUDE SITTING ON STOOL
pen and brown ink, washed in sepia
8 11/16″ × 6 7/8″ (211 × 174 mm)
Art Institute of Chicago
Muscles, Superior Aspect
Artists look for continuity, a rhythmic flow of lines from one segment of the body to the other, as an aid in placing and unifying separate parts of the body. One such line is the longitudinal eminence (A) on the inner border of the top of the foot. This highline is often a continuation of the front edge of the tibia (B). The outer outline of the lower leg around the mass (C) of the peroneus brevis and tertius muscles spirals from side to side across the ankle in an imaginary line of continuity and is picked up by the accent (D) at the inside of the metatarsal of the big toe. A highlight marks the base of the metatarsal of the big toe (E) and the summit of the instep.
From the hollow (F) between the line of the tendon of the tibialis anterior (G) and the extensor longus digitorum (H), the hallucis longus passes under the anterior annular ligament (I) and inward over the foot to the base of the big toe (J), creating a ridge (K) in the lower top section of the foot. At the ankle, the downward extension of line (G) suggests the tendon of the tibialis anterior moving to the first cuneiform and base of the first metatarsal.
The mass of the extensor digitorum brevis (L) sends its four tendons obliquely across the foot into the four internal toes. Lebrun has indicated the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus going to the phalanges of the toes by little accents (M) near their bases.
Jamming toes together in boots and shoes compresses them inward, abnormally flattening their sides and accentuating their convergence around the second toe (N). This makes the head of the metatarsal of the big toe protrude to the side (O).
Charles Lebrun (1619-1690)
PROMETHEUS BOUND
sanguine, heightened with white
19 3/16″ × 12 1/8″ (487 × 308 mm)
Woodner Family Collection II, New York
Extension and Adduction
Extension, or plantar flexion of the foot, takes place at the ankle. It is produced by the muscles of the calf (A), with the help of muscles of the peroneal group (B). As they contract, the heel is pulled upward, and the front of the foot is lowered and extended upon the leg.
Rembrandt breaks (C) his dark hatching along the edge of the tibia, suggesting the presence of the tibialis anterior muscle. Below, at the ankle, a small accent (D) further suggests the action of this muscle on the foot. The foot is massed along the highline with an accentuation at the base of the metatarsal of the big toe (E).
The great toe (F) and its metatarsal (G) dominate the inside section of the foot. Rembrandt’s line overlaps the abductor hallucis (H) and suggests the waist of the arch of the instep. The line breaks again (I) just before the heel. The medial malleolus (J) is suggested by a graded series of lines: one for the base, and three moving upward for the inner edge. A series of short lines accentuates the side of the tendon of the extensor hallucis longus (K) as it extends the big toe and aids in the adduction of the foot. The tendon of this special extensor of the toe is analagous to the extensor pollicis of the thumb.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
NAKED MAN, SITTING ON THE GROUND
etching
3 3/4″ × 6 9/16″ (97 × 166 mm)
Rijksuniversiteit, Leiden
Flexion and Abduction
The prodigal son in Rembrandt’s etching is kneeling. The downward movement in kneeling is caused by the force of gravity and controlled by both the flexors and extensors of the leg. The young man’s hip and knee joints are flexed and the ankle is bent upward or dorsiflexed. The foot is balanced on the ends of the toe pads and the big toe is in dorsiflexion. The foot is slightly abducted, moving away from the body for support against the ground.
The tibialis anterior (A) keeps the foot flexed. The patella (B) protects the knee joint. The tuberosity of the tibia, or kneeling point (C), supports the weight of the body.
Rembrandt drives a line obliquely across the leg, setting off the calf group of muscles (D) from the peroneus longus (E). Below this, a parallel line (F) cuts under the base of the muscular portion of the peroneus longus and then moves in a broken line along the front edge of the muscle. A third and shorter oblique line below this parallels the second. This line skims the base of the muscular fibers of the peroneus brevis (G), moving inward over the long tendon (H) of the peroneus longus.
The mound of the extensor digitorum brevis (I) is bordered above by two lines indicating the outer tendons of the extensor digi
torum longus (J) and below, by a series of lines representing the ridge of the abductor digiti minimi (K). Directly to the left, Rembrandt has used the base of metatarsal of the little toe (L) to break up the long outline of the sole of the foot.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)
RETURN OF THE PRODIGAL SON
etching
6 1/8″ × 5 3/8″ (156 × 136 mm)
British Museum, London
5
THE
SHOULDER
GIRDLE
Clavicle
The clavicle or collar bone (A) is the most prominent bony landmark of the anterior portion of the shoulder girdle. It is the only skeletal connection between the shoulder girdle and the rib cage and sustains the upper extremity of the scapula in various positions that allow great latitude of arm motion.
This drawing is made well above eye level and the longer inner curve of the clavicle follows the convex contour of the rib cage. Michelangelo has accentuated the enlarged inner end of the clavicle (A) where it attaches to the side of the upper portion of the sternum, which is called the manubrium. The first rib is partly covered by the clavicle, but Michelangelo has indicated the prominence of the second rib (B) as a clue to the angle of the sternum and the direction of the rib cage.
The double curve of the clavicle spirals out to its meeting with the acromion process (C) of the scapula. Here, at the summit of the shoulder, the deltoid muscle (D) has its origin along the outer third of the clavicle. Below, the oblique shading shows part of the clavicular portion (E) of the pectoralis major. Above, the trapezius (F) spirals from its origin at the base of the skull and inserts in the outer third of the clavicle.
Anatomy Lessons From the Great Masters Page 5