by Hew Strachan
214 Hordern, East Africa, vol. i., pp. vi–vii; Young, Marching on Tanga, 195, 213.
215 Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 356–7, 359; Hancock, Smuts, 412–13; Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 166, 200.
216 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 191; Buhrer, L’Afrique orientale allemande, 352–3, 355.I have also profited from Ross Anderson’s tactical analysis.
217 Collyer, South Africans with Smuts, 68, 267–9.
218 Crowe, General Smuts’ campaign, 113; more generally Hordern, East Africa,!. 263–70.
219 Blenkinsop and Rainey, Veterinary services, 407–18.
220 Hordern, East Africa,!. 278, 284.
221 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 143–4.
222 Benary, Ehrenbuch der deutschen Feldartillerie, 642–3.
223 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 187–8.
224 Boell, Operationen, 189–95; Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 185.
225 Crowe, General Smuts s campaign, 163–4.
226 Hordern, East Africa, 294.
227 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 182–3; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 141–2; Rainey and Blenkinsop, Veterinary services, 419.
228 Boell, Operationen, 188.
229 Hancock and Poel, Smuts papers, iii. 396; Collyer, South Africans with Smuts, 153–4, gives indications that this would be so in late June.
230 Lettow, Reminiscences, 152–3; Boell, Operationen, 226.
231 Reitz, Trekking on, 101.
232 Hordern, East Africa,!. 393–4.
233 Fendall, East African Force, 194–5.
234 Mosley, Duel for Kilimanjaro, 153.
235 Hordern, East Africa,! 521.
236 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 200; also 195.
237 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, ii. 177. This is the fullest source on the Tabora campaign.
238 Austen, Northwest Tanzania, 118, also 113–18; see also Louis, Ruanda-Urundi, 213.
239 Farwell, Great War in Africa, 217–49, tells the colourful story; Boell, Operationen, 131–4, emphasizes its limited outcome.
240 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, ii. 51–90.
241 Ibid., i. 184–7.
242 Ibid., ii. 186–9.
243 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 205; Boell, Operationen, 260; no Entente source refers to this episode.
244 Buhrer, L’Afrique orientale allemande, 381–3.
245 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, ii. 419–25.
246 Ibid., app., pp. 173, 176, 181–6; Boell, Operationen, 283–5; Marine-Archiv, Kämpfe der Kaiserlichen Marine, ii. 269; Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 206–13.
247 Crucial background to Northey’s offensive is Yorke, ‘Crisis of colonial control’, 20–54, 118–65, 272–91; on Nyasaland, see Page, Journal of African History, XIX (1978), 87–100.
248 Yorke, ‘Crisis of colonial control’, 71–102; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 270–2, 290–309; Hodges, Journal of African History, XIX (1978), 113.
249 Yorke, ‘Crisis of colonial control’, 76–8,195; Lucas, Empire at war, iv. 268, 293–5.
250 Hordern, East Africa,!. 468–508.
251 Boell, Operationen, 250–8.
252 Ibid. 286–98; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 187–96.
253 Boell, Operationen, 68–70; Marine-Archiv, Kämpfe der Kaiserlichen Marine, 275–6.
254 Pélissier, Naissance du Mozambique, ii. 687–90.Pélissier is the main work on Portuguese aspects of the East African campaign. On the diplomatic background, see Texiera, L’Entrée du Portugal dans la Grande Guerre, esp. 205–10, 239, 247–50, 308–11, 358.
255 Hordern, East Africa, i.388–91.
256 Ribeiro de Meneses, Journal of Contemporary History, XXXIII (1998), 90.
257 Boell, Operationen, 122.
258 Crowe, General Smuts’ campaign, is the best English source for this phase of the operations; see also Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 182,187; Beadon, Royal Army Service Corps, ii. 317.
259 Boell, Operationen, 241–2, 246–9, 300; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 168–70.
260 Fendall, East Africa Force, 88–9; also 169–70.
261 Meinertzhagen, Army diary, 165.
262 Ibid. 199; also 201.
263 Fendall, East African Force, 153–5.
264 See Smuts’s remarks in Collyer, South Africans under Smuts, pp. vii-viii.
265 Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, 119–24, 239–250; Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 188–9, 245–9.
266 Hordern, East Africa,!. 265, 561–75; Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Rifles, 301, 413.
267 Lewis J. Greenstein, ‘The Nandi experience in the First World War’, in Page (ed.), Africa, 82–5; Savage and Munro, Journal of African History, VII (1966), 324.
268 Fendall, East African Force, 198–9; Hordern, East Africa,! 575; Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Riles, 333–6.
269 Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 183.
270 Killingray and Matthews, Canadian Journal of African Studies, XIII (1979), 18.
271 Miller, Battle for the Bundu, 256.
272 Boell, Operationen, 316–17; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 160–2, 175–80; Marine-Archiv, Kämpfe der kaiserlichen Marine, 253–5; Taute, Tanganyika Notes and Records, 8 (1939), 5–6, 14–15; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 136–41.
273 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 141–2, 269–75.
274 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, iii. 11–17, 24, 33–52,121.
275 Boell, Operationen, 325–32.
276 Hodges, Carrier corps, 51–7.
277 McLaughlin, Small Wars and Insurgencies,!! (1991), 248.
278 Hodges, Carrier corps, 51.
279 Schwarte, Weltkampf, iv. 406; Boell, Operationen, gives dates a day later than those given in British accounts.
280 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 296–305.
281 Boell, Operationen, 377, gives total German losses of 580; Lettow, Reminiscences, says 800. See also Haywood and Clarke, Royal West African Frontier Force, 207–35; Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 255; Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 165, 260–1.
282 Hodges, Carrier corps, 51.
283 Belgique, Campagnes coloniales belges, iii. 121–219.
284 Mosley, Duel for Kilimanjaro, 174–5.
285 Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 216–25; Schoen, Deutschen Feuerwerkswesens, 1455–6.
286 Pélissier, Naissance du Mozambique, ii. 704; see also 699–703.
287 Ibid., ii. 650–79; Ranger, St Antony’s Papers, XV (1963), 54–80.
288 Schnee, Deutsch-Ostafrika, 353–5; Lettow-Vorbeck, Reminiscences, 233–4, 271, 280; Miller, Battle for the Bundu, 299–305.
289 Taute, Tanganyika Notes and Records, VIII (1939), 3, 6, 10, 18–20.
290 The English-language sources on this phase of the campaign are few; see Fendall, East African Force, 114–42, and Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Rifles, 390–414.
291 Deppe, Mit Lettow-Vorbeck, 30, 368–9, 396–402.
292 Maddox, Journal of African History, XXXI (1990), 183–5.
293 Yorke, ‘Crisis of colonial control’, 272–370.
294 Ibid. 362–70; Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Rifles.
295 The first figure is from Crowder, ‘The First World War’, 291; the second from Moyse-Bartlett, King’s African Rifles, 413. Boell, Operationen, 32, gives 240,000.
296 Iliffe, Tanganyika, 246.
297 Hodges, Journal of African History, XIX (1978), 115.
298 Wolfgang Petter, ‘Der Kampf um die deutschen Kolonien’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 406
1 The broadest accounts of the Goeben and the Breslau incident are Halpern, Naval war, 12–26; Trumpener, Canadian Journal of History, VI (1971), 171–87. Exhaustive from the British perspective is Miller, Superior force ; operational descriptions are Corbett, Naval operations,!. 54–71; Marder, From the Dreadnought, ii. 21–41; Hough, Great War at sea, 69–86.
2 For a fuller consideration of Troubridge’s position, see Miller, Superior force, esp. 26–32,84–111,270, 293–4
4 Miller, Superior force, 179–88, 278–9, 281–2.
5 Santorini, Revue internationale d’histoire militaire, 63 (1985), 101.
6 Gottlieb, Studies, 43–6; Weber, Eagles on the Crescent, 75–6.
7 Miller, Superior force, 190–5, 277.
8 Halpern, Haus, 143–54.
9 Brock (ed.), Asquith: Letters to Venetia Stanley, 168.
10 Egmont Zechlin, ‘Cabinet versus economic warfare in Germany’, in Koch (ed.), Origins, 228; Hörich, Deutsche Seekriegführung, 26.
11 On the general background, see Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman empire, ii. 201–41; Feroz Ahmad, ‘The last Ottoman Empire’, in Kent (ed.), The great powers ;Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire.
12 Ahmad, Young Turks, esp. 1–56;Zurcher, Unionist factor, 19–51;Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 18–19, 22, 24–5, 42–56.
13 Miller, Straits, 31–2.
14 Ahmad, The young Turks, 75–80; Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman empire, ii. 285–7;Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 92,110–12; Hayne, French foreign office, 26, 180, 185.
15 Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 16.
16 Jaschke, Die Welt des Islams, XXIII (1941), 5; see also Landau, Pan-Turkism, 28–42; Larcher, La Guerre turque, ch. 2; Bihl, Kaukasus-Politik, 143–50.
17 Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s story, 20.
18 Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 63; also 84–90.
19 The literature on Turkey’s entry to the war is sadly deficient. Reflecting the available sources, most academic work approaches the problem from the viewpoint of a particular great power rather than from the Turkish end. Kent (ed.), The great powers, provides a country-by-country survey; on Britain and Turkey, see Heller, British policy, and Miller, Straits ; on the Central Powers and Turkey, Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire ; Silberstein, Troubled alliance ; Weber, Eagles on the crescent, and— older but still valuable—Mühlmann, Deutschland und der Türkei 1913–1914. An excellent recent survey, but focused on 1913–14, is F. A. K. Yasamee, ‘Ottoman empire’, in Keith Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war. A brief synthesis from a Turkish perspective is Y. T. Kurat, ‘How Turkey drifted into World War I’, in Bourne and Watt (ed.), Studies in international history. Also helpful: Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman empire ; Ahmad, Young Turks ; Larcher, La Guerre turque ; Howard, Partition of Turkey ; Emin, Turkey in the World War ; Trumpener, Journal of Modern History, XXXIV (1962), 369–80.
20 Heller, British policy, 39; in addition to Heller on Turko-British relations, see also Cohen, British policy in Mesopotamia, and Marian Kent, ‘Great Britain and the end of the Ottoman empire 1900–23’, in Kent (ed.), The great powers.
21 Macfie, End of the Ottoman empire, 114–18; Miller, Straits, 17–22, 25–7,111–12,147.
22 Miller, Straits, 59, 78–83, 96–7, 140–3, 184; Marian Kent, ‘Constantinople and Asiatic Turkey 1905–1914’, in Hinsley (ed.), British foreign policy under Grey, 158–9; Marder (ed.), Fear God and dread nought, ii. 197–9, 384–6, 389–90.
23 Miller, Straits, 190–1, 204–6; Miller, Superior force, 152–7,163–72.
24 Gottlieb, Studies, 21.
25 Trumpener, Journal of Contemporary History, l (1966), 180–1; see also id., Germany and the Ottoman empire, ch. 9.
26 Liman von Sanders, Five years in Turkey, 1–4; see also Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 13–14.
27 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 91–2, 94–5,108–9,111–13.
28 Schulte, Vor dem Kriegsausbruch, 19–35.
29 Hagen, Türkei im ersten Weltkrieg, 31–2; Epkenhans, Wilhelminische Flottenrüstung, 305; Mombauer, ‘Moltke’, 115–16.
30 Mühlmann, Das deutsch-türkische Waffenbündnis, 14; Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 150–2.
31 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 17,19–20.
32 For Djemal’s own account, see his Memoirs, 101–8; also Corrigan, Past and Present, 36 (1967), 144–52.
33 Mühlmann, Deutschland und der Türkei, 39.
34 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 52–5; Corrigan, Past and Present, 36 (1967), 150–1; A. May, Passing of the Hapsburg monarchy, 140; Silberstein, Troubled alliance, 10–16. But F. R. Bridge, ‘The Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire, 1900–18’ in Kent (ed.), Great powers, 43–6, suggests Austria Hungary was more cautious.
35 Mühlmann, Das deutsche-türkische Waffenbündnis, 18.
36 Yasamee, ‘Ottoman empire’, in Wilson (ed), Decisions for war, 237–8.
37 Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 80–2.
38 Silberstein, Troubled alliance, 91–2.
39 Yasamee, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 242, 245, 247–8; Miller, Straits, 224–6, 234, 283–5.
40 Kurat, in Bourne and Watt (eds.), Studies, 293.
41 Howard, Partition, 96–104; C. J. Smith, Russian struggle, 70–5.
42 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 79.
43 Heller, British policy, 63–4; see also Churchill to Enver, 15 Aug. 1914, in Gilbert, Churchill, vol. III, Companion, 38–9.
44 Gilbert, Churchill, vol. III, Companion, 101.
45 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 75.
46 C. J. Smith, American Historical Review, LXX (1965), 1015–34.
47 Heller, British policy, 146; also J. Nevakivi, ‘Lord Kitchener and the partition of the Ottoman empire 1915–1916’, in Bourne and Watt (eds.), Studies, 317–19; Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 34; Popplewell, Intelligence and National Security, V (1990), 143.
48 Cohen, British policy in Mesopotamia, 298–308; Busch, Britain, India and the Arabs, 12–15.
49 Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik, i. 15–20.
50 Kedourie, England and the Middle East, 11–17.
51 Yasamee, in Wilson (ed.), Decisions for war, 249–50.
52 Ahmad, in Kent, Great powers, 16.
53 Ahmad, Studies in Ottoman Diplomatic History, IV (1990), 46–54.
54 Kühlmann, Erinnerungen, 440–1,448.
55 Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 48–9, 51.
56 Yasamee, in Wilson (ed.), Decisons for war, 253–4.
57 Halpern, Naval war, 49–50.
58 Ibid. 19–20.
59 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 165–6; Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 53–5.
60 Mühlmann, Deutschland und der Türkei, 64–5.
61 Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 87.
62 Kurat, in Bourne and Watt (eds.), Studies, 311–14; more generally, Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 56–61, and id., Journal of Modern History, XXXIV (1962), 369–80.
63 Nekrasov, North of Gallipoli, 18–22; Alan Bodger, ‘Russia and the end of the Ottoman Empire’, in Kent (ed.), Great powers, 82–9.
64 Sheffy, British military intelligence, 90.
65 David, Inside Asquith’s cabinet, 205; Gilbert, Churchill, iii. 215–19; Miller, Straits, 326–30.
66 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 150; see also Mühlmann, Oberste Heeresleitung und Balkan, 22–3.
67 B. Lewis, Modern Turkey, 201.
68 Wallach, Anatomie einer Militärhilfe, 64–89.
69 Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman empire, ii. 245–6.
70 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 65–6; Erik Zürcher, ‘Little Mehmet in the desert: the Ottoman soldier’s experience’, in Cecil and Liddle (eds.), Facing Armageddon, 232–3; Sheffy, British military intelligence, 34; Ahmad, Kurdistan, 52–3.
71 Emin, Turkey in the World War, 225–6; Bihl, Kaukasuspolitik, 140, 153, 158, 161, 200; Guse, Kaukasusfront, 18.
72 Haley, Middle Eastern Studies, XXX (1994), 17–18, 23.
73 Ahmad, Young Turks, 68–74.
74 Djemal, Memoirs, 67.
75 Ahmad, Young Turks, 68–74; Pokrowski, Die internationalen Beziehungen, series 1, ii. 61–3,193–4.
76 Ahmad, Kurdistan, 53–8.
/> 77 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 70; Muzaffar Erendil, ‘The Ottoman empire in World War I’, in Kiraly et al. (eds.), East Central European society, 371–2; Shaw and Shaw, Ottoman empire, 246.