by Hew Strachan
127 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 269–70, 605, 616.
128 Ibid. 533–40; Landau, Politics of pan-Islam, 120–1; Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 38–9.
129 I am grateful to Dr Gregory Martin for this information.
130 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 540–7.
131 Quoted in Scham, Lyautey in Morocco, 34.
132 Porch, Conquest of Morocco, and ‘Bugeaud, Gallieni, Lyautey: the development of French colonial warfare’, in Paret (ed.), Makers of modern strategy, 388–95, puts Lyautey in his place. See also Bidwell, Morocco under colonial rule, 12–25; Le Révérend, Lyautey ; P. Lyautey (ed.), Lyautey l’africain, for his correspondence; Rivet, Lyautey et l’institution du protectorat français au Maroc, which is exhaustive but organized thematically, and therefore hard to use specifically for the First World War.
133 Ferry, Carnets secrets, 43; Farrar, Principled pragmatists, 183.
134 J. L. Miège, ‘La Libye, l’Italie et la France entre 1914 et 1917’, in Guillen (ed.), La France et l’Italie, 468
135 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 489–505; and also O. Meynier, Revue militaire française, 148 (octobre 1933), 120–42; 149 (novembre 1933), 336–53; 152, (février 1934), 214–37 (By Commdt. Filio).
136 Raynaud-Lacroze, Méharistes au combat, provides a memoir, although it confuses 1915 with 1916.
137 Perkins, Tunisia, 92–5.
138 J. L. Miège, ‘La Libye, l’Italie et la France’, in Guillen (ed.), La France et l’Italie, 470.
139 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 500–2; Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, 139–61; Michel, L’appel à l’Afrique, 118; Haywood and Clarke, West African Frontier Force, 252; Crowder, ‘The 1914–1918 European war and West Africa’, 500, 508–9.
140 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 501.
141 Ibid. 502–5; Porch, Conquest of the Sahara, 299–302; Clayton, France, soldiers and Africa, 101–2.
142 Müller, Islam, gihad, 371–2, 395.
143 G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 279–80, 602, 638, 658–61.
144 Ibid. 575–98; Ageron, Les Algériens musulmans, 1150–7.
145 Memorandum by Lyautey, Dec. 1914, in P. Lyautey (ed.), Lyautey l’africain, ii. 316. In addition to the works already cited in footnote 132, see also Michael Brett, ‘The Maghrib’, in Roberts (ed.), Cambridge History of Africa, vol. VII.
146 Burke, Francia, III (1975), 448–9; Usborne, Conquest of Morocco, 230–1; Hoisington, Lyautey, 93–107.
147 Burke, Francia, III (1975), 446–7, 451–4; P. Lyautey, Lyautey l’africain, iii. 107, 298;Möller, Islam, Gihad, 308–18, 400–4, 407–10.
148 P. Lyautey, Lyautey l’africain, iii. 17–19, 29–42, 249, 262, 293–303; see also Lyautey’s two major reports on his wartime work, of November 1916 and June 1919: ibid., iii. 129–72, 333–49.
149 Larcher, La Guerre turque, 526–8; G. Meynier, L’Algérie révelée, 88, 260, 523–4, 529.
150 Gooch, Plans of war, 215.
151 Barooah, India and the official Germany, 74–5, 80–1,168–9.
152 McKale, War by revolution, 52; Vogel, Die Persien und Afghanistanexpedition Oskar Ritter v. Niedermayers, 139; also 49,138–9,188–9.
153 Wassmuss has a somewhat overblown biography in English: Sykes, Wassmuss.
154 Vogel, Persien-und Afghanistanexpedition, 173; see also 7, 23–4, 57, 66,137–76,197–202.
155 Gehrke, Persien in der deutschen Orientpolitik, i. 22. Gehrke’s work has proved invaluable, and is the source for much of what follows. Hopkirk, On secret service, provides a recent general account in English of the main German efforts in Persia, Afghanistan, and India.
156 For background, see Peter Avery, Modern Iran ; Nikki Keddie and Mehrdad Amanat, ‘Iran under the later Qajars’, 1848–1922, in Peter Avery et al. (eds.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. VII.
157 Rose Greaves, ‘Iranian relations with Great Britain and British India 1798–1921’, in Avery et al. (eds.), Cambridge History of Iran, vii. 421; see Geyer, Russian imperialism, 334–7.
158 Charles Issawi, ‘European economic penetration 1872–1921’, in Avery et al. (eds.), Cambridge History of Iran, vii. 606–7; Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 6–22.
159 Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 21–2, 65–7; Gehrke, Persien, 38–41.
160 Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 64–77.
161 Ibid. 78–9; Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 288–9, 295–6; Gehrke, Persien, 44–51.
162 Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 35–53, 61–71; C. J. Smith, American Historical Review, LXX (1965), 1015–34; id., Russian struggle for power, 83–8, 216–30; Neilson, Britain and the last Tsar, 362.
163 Gehrke, Persien, 32–3,114–15; Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 191–2.
164 Pomiankowski, Zusammenbruch, 150;Mühlmann, Waffenbündnis, 69; Gehrke, Persien, 67, 84–5.
165 Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 298–301.
166 Bihl, Kaukasus-politik, 65–6, 71, 240–1.
167 Weber, Eagles on the crescent, 170–1.
168 Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 55–9; Gehrke, Persien, 54–6, 68–72.
169 Gehrke, Persien, 84–7, 99–100; Moberly, Operations in Persia, 74–84.
170 Kröger, ‘Revolution als Programm’, in Michalka (ed.), Der Erste Weltkrieg, 379–80.
171 Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 63–5, 102–7; Gehrke, Persien, 77–82, 124–31, 149–64, 193–4.
172 Gehrke, Persien, 57–60.
173 Neulen, Feldgrau in Jerusalem, 205–6, 212.
174 Gehrke, Persien, 137–8,167–71; Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 204–6.
175 Gehrke, Persien, 73–5,121–2,135–6; Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 61–2; Nogales, Four years, 226.
176 Gehrke, Persien, 40–3, 62–3,102–3,108–9,142–6,153–4; Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, 68–70,161–2.
177 Gehrke, Persien, 165–81.
178 Wallach, Anatomie, 183; see also 170–4, 182–4; Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman empire, 72–9.
179 Mühlmann, Waffenbündnis, 71–4; see also Gehrke, Persien, 185–91; von der Goltz, Denkwürdigkeiten, 419.
180 von der Goltz, Denkwürdigkeiten, 413, 421, 426.
181 Ibid. 423–4.
182 Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 57–9, 73–92.
183 John S. Galbraith and Robert A. Huttenback, ‘Bureaucracies at war: the British in the Middle East in the First World War’, in Ingram (ed.), National and international politics, 105–6,114–16.
184 Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 57–9, 93–113.
185 Allen and Muratoff, Caucasian battlefields, 257–8.
186 Ibid. 322–4; see also Moberly, Operations in Persia, 87–9, 102–8, 117–19; Gehrke, Persien, 105–7, 140–1,175.
187 Gehrke, Persien, 192–215; Moberley, Operations in Persia, 119–28.
188 Olson, Anglo-Iranian relations, 118–33.
189 Ahmad, Kurdistan, 98.
190 Sykes, Wassmuss, 155.
191 In addition to Vogel, Persien- und Afghanistanexpedition, esp. 45–6,72–101, 217–30, 254–71, 277–8, see also Adamec, Afghanistan, 86–107.
192 Rumbold, Watershed in India, 23.
193 Rumbold, Watershed in India, 23.
194 Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 4–6,13.
195 R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, with A. Denny, Africa and the Victorians.
196 Jeffery, British army and crisis of empire, 3.
197 Judith M. Brown, ‘War and the colonial relationship: Britain, India and the war of 1914–18’, in Ellinwood and Pradhan (eds.), India and World War I, 24–7; War Office, Statistics of the military effort, 30, 777.
198 Quotation provided by Dr G. Martin.
199 Popplewell, ‘British intelligence and Indian subversion’, 56–113; Rumbold, Watershed in India, 14–16, 32–3, 43–4.
200 Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 1–48.
201 Ibid. 53–7
9;Offer, First World War, 164–209.
202 Popplewell, ‘British intelligence and Indian subversion’, 114–36,145–65.
203 Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 40–7; Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 95–110; Tan, Journal of Military History, LXIV (2000), 398–9; also 374, 381–3, 387–8. Hopkirk, On secret service, 83, gives different totals for those tried and convicted.
204 Precise figures vary, see Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 48–9, and Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 106–10. Both Dignan and Sareen place the mutiny firmly in the context of the Ghadr revolution. Beckett, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, LXII (1984), 132–53, sees the issue as primarily professional, as does Omissi, Sepoy and the Raj, 149. Harper and Miller, Singapore mutiny, is the fullest account. See also Murfett, et al., Between two oceans, 125–44.
205 Barooah, India and the official Germany, passim.
206 Hopkirk, On secret service, 51.
207 Barooah, India and the official Germany, 167–210; Fraser, Journal of Contemporary History, XII (1977), 258–60; Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 117–25.
208 On operations in the Dutch East Indies and Thailand, see Fraser, Journal of Contemporary History, XII (1977), 261–8; Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 130–44; Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 55–69; Doerries, Washington-Berlin 1908/1917, 174–9; Popplewell, ‘British intelligence and Indian subversion’, 103–4, 232–8; Emily Brown, Har Dayal, 202–3.
209 Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 76–121, 137–201; Fraser, History, LXIII (1978), 366–82; Popplewell, ‘British intelligence and Indian subversion’, 260–78.
210 Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 71–2.
211 Ibid. 72; cf. Doerries, Washington-Berlin 1908/1917, 178.
212 Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 193–205; Dignan, Indian revolutionary problem, 122–35; Sareen, 204, says 97 were indicted.
213 Prasad, Indian Muslims and World War 1,1–121; Rumbold, Watershed in India, 26–7, 41–2.
214 Judith Brown, Gandhi’s rise to power, 29–32,138–40.
215 Baha, Asian Affairs, NS, LVII (1970), 29–34; Macmunn, Turmoil and tragedy in India, 133–45; Moreman, Army in India, 99–102.
216 Emily Brown, Har Dayal, 190–3, 210–13.
217 Prasad, Indian Muslims, 127–44; Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 172–84.
218 Baha, Asian Affairs, NS, LVII (1970), 36–7; Baha, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan, XIV (1969), 185–92; Macmunn, Turmoil and tragedy, 191–2.
219 Judith Brown, Gandhi’s rise to power, 17–24.
220 Rumbold, Watershed in India, 20–1, 28–30,130; Lucas, Empire at war, v. 190–3,198–201; Bogart, War costs, 184–5.
221 N. Gerald Barrier, ‘Ruling India: coercion and propaganda in British India during the First World War’, in Ellinwood and Pradhan (eds.), India and World War I ; Brown, Modern India, 195.
222 Rumbold, Watershed in India, 69; see generally 48–50, 54–64, 69–126.
223 Rumbold, Watershed in India, 69; see generally 91.
224 Turner, British politics and the Great War, 223.
225 Ibid. 222.
226 Brown, Gandhi’s rise to power, 40–51,123–40; id., ‘War and the colonial relationship: Britain, India and the war of 1914–18’, in Ellinwood and Pradhan (eds.), India and World War I ; id., Modern India, 193–4,198–9.
227 Sareen, Indian revolutionary movement, 207–10, 218–21.
228 von der Goltz, Denkwürdigkeiten, 421–2.
1 The only recent general treatment of the subject is Hardach, First World War, ch. 6. Balderston, Economic History Review, 2nd series, XLII (1989), 222–44, is important but focuses on Britain and Germany only. Soutou, L’Or et le sang, a work of considerable intelligence, is concerned primarily with war aims. However, his essay, ‘Comment a été financé la guerre’, in La Gorce (ed.), La Première Guerre Mondiale, makes salient observations in a brief compass. Of the older literature, Bogart, War costs and their financing, and Knauss, Die deutsche, englische, und französische Kriegsfinanzierung, are comparative and helpful.
2 I. S. Bloch, Modern weapons, pp. xliv-xlv, 140–6; Jean de Bloch, Guerre future, iv. esp. 321–9.
3 Brécard, En Belgique, 95; Bogart, War costs, 52.
4 Charbonnet, Politique financière, 9–10.
5 Ferguson, Pity of war, 126–30; Ferguson’s focus is Anglo-German, but he is unique among recent writers in integrating war Finance with a general account of the war.
6 Hamilton-Grace, Finance and war, 43, 53, 57, 62, 71–2.
7 Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, xvi. 23, 39,123–5.
8 Skidelsky, Keynes, i. 334.
9 Roesler, Finanzpolitik des Deutschen Reiches, 229.
10 Ally, Journal of Southern African Studies, XVII (1991), 222.
11 Eichengreen, Golden fetters, 52; Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 21.
12 de Cecco, International gold standard, 115–21.
13 Zilch, Reichsbank, 40–59,124; Knauss, Kriegsfinanzierung, 21.
14 de Cecco, International gold standard, unpaginated preface.
15 Eichengreen, Golden fetters, 49.
16 Brown, Gold standard, xiii.
17 Eichengreen, Golden fetters, 3–9, 29–66.
18 R. S. Sayers, Bank of England, ii. 19; see generally i. 60–3; ii. 3–30. Seabourne, ‘Summer of 1914’, 7982, puts the banks’ case, and de Cecco, International gold standard, 132–41,191–3, is critical. See also Paul Kennedy, ‘Great Britain before 1914’, in E. R. May (ed.), Knowing one’s enemies, 200–1; Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, xvi. 4–6; D. French, British economic and strategic planning, 16–18, 67–70.
19 Ferguson, Pity of war, 192.
20 The main accounts of the crisis used here are Brown, Gold standard, 1–23; Morgan, British financial policy, 1–32; Seabourne, ‘Summer of 1914’.
21 Roberts, Schröders, 153.
22 Ferguson, Pity of war, 197.
23 Morgan, British financial policy, 30.
24 de Cecco, International gold standard, 163–5.
25 Johnson (ed.), Collected writings of Keynes, xvi. 7–15; in general, see de Cecco, International gold standard, 147–65.
26 Peters, Twentieth century British history, IV (1993), 126–48; see also Skidelsky, Keynes, i. 291, for a critical view of the banks.
27 Roberts, Schröders, 160–4.
28 Seabourne, ‘Summer of 1914’, 94–5; Morgan, British financial policy, 160–1; Brown, Gold standard, 100, 108–11.
29 Michelson et al., Russian public finance, 393–4, 439–41.
30 Morgan, British financial policy, 335–6.
31 Scott, Australia during the war, 503–7.
32 Ally, Journal of Southern African Studies, XVII (1991), 221–38; Grady, British war finance, 41–4.
33 Gilbert, American financing, 14–18; Burk, Britain, America and the sinews of war, 55–62; Brown, Gold standard, 16–21; Morgan, British financial policy, 21–2; Noyes, American finance, 60–1, 82–8; Chandler, Strong, 55–60.
34 Burk, Britain, America, 61–2.
35 Neilson, Strategy and supply, 54–7, 65–6.
36 Petit, Finances extérieures de la France, 59,181–6.
37 Horn, Guerres mondiales et conflicts contemporains, 180, (1995), 11–13; Horn, International History Review, XVII (1995), 52–4, 56–8.
38 Johnson (ed.), Collected works of Keynes, xvi. 72.
39 Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 224; for a development of this theme, see Soutou, in La Gorce (ed.), La Première Guerre Mondiale, 286–8.
40 Soutou, L’Or et le sang, 222–3.
41 Michelson et al. (eds.), Russian public finance, 294.
42 Ribot, Letters to a friend, 90.
43 Petit, Finances extérieures, 62, 71, 196–7.
44 Brown, Gold standard, 100.
45 Morgan, British financial policy, 356–7; Sayers, Bank of England,!. 89–91.
46 Brown, Gold standard,
75–6.
47 Petit, Finances extérieures, 211–16; Ribot, Letters to a friend, 104–5.
48 Eichengreen, Golden fetters, 73; Pigou, Political economy of war, 184–5.