‘Thus, men have been entrusted by God to the protection of their rulers, who should therefore take diligent care to render Him a good account of them, like good stewards to their master, to love them and to regard their every blessing or misfortune as their own, and to strive for their happiness above all else. So the prince must not only be good but make others good as well, like the set-square used by architects that is true and straight itself and also makes true and straight everything to which it is applied. And it is convincing proof that the ruler is good when his people are good, because the way the prince lives acts as a model and guide for the citizens, and the way he behaves necessarily governs the behaviour of all the others. Nor is it fitting for an ignorant man to teach, or a lawless man to order the affairs of others, or one who falls to help raise others up. So if the prince is to perform these duties well, he must put every care and effort into acquiring knowledge; then he must establish within himself and never once deviate from the rule of reason, inscribed not on paper or metal but graven on his very soul, so that it will be not only familiar to him but inherent in his nature and he will live with it as part of himself. In this way, day in and day out, in every place and time, it may admonish and speak to him within his mind, ridding him of the disturbances experienced by those intemperate souls which because they are afflicted on the one hand by, as it were, the stupor of ignorance, and on the other, by the turmoil caused by their blind and perverse desires, are shaken by a frenzy that leaves them no peace, like the strange nightmares that sometimes come in sleep.
‘Moreover, the greater the power that evil enjoys, the more harm it is able to do; and when the ruler can do whatever he wants, then there is a great danger that he will not want what he should. So Bias6 was right to say that the test is how a man performs in office. For just as a cracked vase cannot be detected so long as it is empty but at once shows where it is flawed when filled with water, so corrupt and depraved souls rarely reveal their defects except when they are filled with authority. For then they prove unable to sustain the heavy weight of power, and so they collapse and spill forth on every side their cupidity, pride, rage, insolence and all the tyrannical urges they have within themselves. Without restraint they persecute those who are good and wise, and exalt the wicked; in their cities they do not tolerate friendships or societies or common interests among the citizens; instead they foster spies, informers and murderers, to create terror and turn men into cowards; and they sow dissension in order to keep men disunited and weak. These methods cause the wretched people endless loss and ruin, and often enough ensure the cruel death of the tyrant himself or at least cause him to live in a state of perpetual fear. For whereas good rulers fear not for themselves but for their people, tyrants go in fear of the very people they rule. And so the more people they rule, and the more power they possess, the more they live in fear and the more enemies they have. Consider how frightened and uneasy was Clearchus,7 the tyrant of Pontus, whenever he went to the public square or the theatre, or to some banquet or other public place; for, so it is recorded, he used to sleep shut up in a chest. Or remember that other tyrant, Aristodemus the Argive, who turned his own bed into a kind of prison; for in his palace he had a little room suspended in mid-air, and so high that it could be reached only by a ladder; and here he slept with his mistress, whose mother used to take the steps away at night and put them back in the morning. In all things, the life of a good prince should be the contrary to this, free and safe, as dear to the citizens as their own lives, and so arranged as to be both active and contemplative, insofar as is convenient for the welfare of his people.’
Signor Gaspare then asked: ‘And which of these two, signor Ottaviano, do you think is the more fitting for a ruler?’
Signor Ottaviano replied with a smile: ‘Perhaps you are thinking that I am persuaded that I am myself that outstanding courtier who must understand so many things and make use of them for the commendable purpose I have described. But remember that these gentlemen have created him with many accomplishments that I lack. So let us first try to discover him, since I defer to him as regards both this subject and all the other matters that concern a good ruler.’
Said signor Gaspare: ‘I think that if you lack any of the accomplishments attributed to the courtier, they are music and dancing and such things of little importance rather than those which concern the education of the ruler and this aspect of courtiership.’
To this, signor Ottaviano replied: ‘They are none of them of little importance, all those things that help the courtier gain the favour of his prince, which he must do, as we have said, before he may venture to teach him the virtue of true knowledge; and this I think I have demonstrated can be learned and is as beneficial as ignorance (from which all faults stem, and especially the sin of false conceit) is harmful. However, I am sure I have now said enough, and perhaps more than I promised.’
Then the Duchess replied: ‘The more you exceed your promise, so much the more we shall be indebted to you for your courtesy. So I hope you will be happy to say what you think in answer to signor Gaspare’s question, and, please, to tell us also everything you would teach your prince if he needed instruction and assuming you had completely won his favour and could therefore speak your mind freely.’
Signor Ottaviano smiled and said: ‘If I had the favour of some of the rulers I know, and were to speak my mind freely, I imagine I would soon lose it again. However, since you wish me to answer this question of signor Gaspare’s as well, in my opinion princes should lead both kinds of life, though especially the contemplative since for them there are two aspects to this. The first entails clear insight and judgement; the other, issuing lawful commands in the proper manner, concerning things that are reasonable and within their authority, and having these carried out at appropriate times and places by those who have cause to obey. Of this Duke Federico was speaking when he said that the man who knows how to command is always obeyed. Giving commands, then, is the chief duty of a ruler, who very often, however, also has to be present and see them being carried out himself, and in certain circumstances sometimes has to perform himself. All these are concerned with action; but the active life should be designed to lead to the contemplative life, just as war is meant to lead to peace, and toil to rest.
‘So it is also the duty of the good ruler to give his people the enduring laws and ordinances that will enable them to live safe and dignified lives in peace and quiet and enjoy in a worthy manner the tranquillity for which they actively strive. For there have always been many republics and principalities which have enjoyed continual prosperity and greatness during times of war only to fall into decay and lose their greatness and splendour, as soon as they achieve peace, as iron grows rusty in disuse. And the sole cause of this is their not having been properly taught how to live at peace or learned how to make use of the fruits of leisure. It is wrong to be always at war and not to seek to attain peace as the objective; although, to be sure, some rulers suppose that their principal aim must be to subjugate their neighbours, and in consequence they incite their people to become bellicose and aggressive in rapine, murder and so forth, and they encourage this with rewards, and call it virtue. For example, it was once the custom among the Scythians not to allow anyone who had not slain an enemy to drink from the cup that was passed round at their solemn feasts. In other parts of the world it was the custom to erect around a tomb as many obelisks as the man buried there had killed enemies. These and similar things were done to make men warlike, simply in order to subjugate others. But this was never feasible, seeing that the process could go on for ever, short of the conquest of the whole world, and was in conflict with reason as propounded by the natural law, which requires us not to want for others what we should not wish for ourselves. Therefore rulers should make their people warlike not for lust of conquest but in order to ensure the defence of themselves and their subjects against anyone endeavouring to enslave or injure them in any way, or to expel tyrants and give good government to those who
are abused or to enslave those whose nature is such as to qualify them for slavery, with the purpose of governing them fairly and bringing them peace, tranquillity and leisure. Moreover, to this end all the laws and ordinances of justice should be directed, by punishing the wicked not out of vindictiveness but so as to change their ways and prevent them disturbing the peace of others. Indeed, it is outrageous and deplorable that in war, which is intrinsically evil, men should be valorous and wise, whereas in peace and quiet, which is good, they are so ignorant and inept that they do not know how to enjoy their blessings. So just as during times of war people should apply themselves to the practical virtues that are necessary to attain the objective of war, namely peace, so in peace, to attain the corresponding objective of tranquillity they should apply themselves to the moral virtues to which the practical virtues lead. In this way, the prince’s subjects will be good, and he will be far busier praising and rewarding than punishing. And his rule will be very happy both for his subjects and himself: not imperious, like that of a master over his slaves, but sweet and calm, like that of a good father over a good son.’
Then signor Gaspare remarked: ‘I would be glad to learn what are these practical virtues that are necessary in war and the moral virtues needed during times of peace.’
Signor Ottaviano replied: ‘All virtues are good and beneficial, simply because of their good effects. But especially useful in times of war is the virtue of fortitude, since it frees the soul of emotions and takes away not merely fear but even the awareness of danger; other useful qualities are steadfastness, long-suffering patience and a spirit that is resolute and unperturbed by all the blows of Fortune. It is right, too, that in war, and indeed at any other time, men should possess all the virtues that are conducive to moral excellence, such as justice, continence and temperance. But these are far more important during times of peace and quiet, because often when men are enjoying ease and prosperity, and Fortune is smiling on them, they become unjust, intemperate and easily corrupted by pleasures. So in such circumstances men are in great need of these virtues, seeing that a life of ease is very apt to encourage bad ways and habits. For this reason it used to be proverbial in the ancient world that slaves should never be allowed to take their ease; and it is believed that the pyramids of Egypt were built in order to keep the people occupied, because everyone benefits from the practice of hard work. There are many other virtues which are all most beneficial; but let what I have said so far be enough for the time being. For if I knew how to teach my prince and instruct him in all the virtuous ways we have outlined already, having done so I would think nothing more was needed for me to have achieved well enough the purposes of the good courtier.’
Then signor Gaspare said: ‘Signor Ottaviano, you have gone out of your way to praise good education and have indicated that you think it is the principal means for attaining virtue and goodness. So I would like to know whether the instruction which the courtier must give his prince should be conveyed casually during the ordinary conduct of affairs, so as to accustom him to acting in the right way without his being aware of it, or should be conveyed at the outset by formal argument about the nature of good and evil, and explanations, before the prince proceeds any farther, as to what is the right path to follow and what he must avoid. In short, should the prince be encouraged and confirmed in a virtuous way of life through argument and theory, or through practice?’
‘You are involving me in too long a discussion,’ answered signor Ottaviano. ‘However, so that you don’t think I want to avoid answering your questions, let me say that just as we are divided into soul and body, so the soul is divided into two parts, one of which contains our reason and the other our instinct. And then just as in generation the body precedes the soul, so the irrational part of the soul precedes the rational; and this we see clearly in the case of children in whom anger and desire are evident almost as soon as they are born, whereas reason appears only with the passing of time. So we must take care for the body before the soul, and for the instincts before the reason, though this is in the first case for the sake of the soul and in the second for the sake of the reason. For just as intellectual virtue is perfected by teaching, so moral virtue is perfected by practice. First, therefore, the prince should learn through practice, which will make it possible for him to govern the instincts that are not yet susceptible to reason and through this commendable discipline direct them towards a worthy end. Then they should be moulded by the intellect, which sheds light at a later stage but enables all the virtues to be perfected in one whose soul has been strengthened through good habits which, in my opinion, are fundamental.’
Then signor Gaspare commented: ‘Before you go any further, I would like to know what attention should be paid to the body, because you did say that we should care for the body before the soul.’
Signor Ottaviano replied with a smile: ‘Ask those you see here who nourish their bodies so well and look so fat and well; for mine, as you see, is not too well cared for. However, one could also talk about this at some length, as about the proper time for marrying, so that the children are neither too near nor too far from their fathers’ age, and about the games and education necessary from the time of birth onwards so that they grow up handsome, healthy and strong.’
Signor Gaspare answered: ‘In my opinion, what women would most like so that their children should grow up handsome and attractive would be to have them in common in the fashion that Plato urges in his Republic.’8
Then Signora Emilia said with a laugh: ‘It’s against the rules for you to begin criticizing women again.’
‘But I mean to praise them highly,’ replied signor Gaspare, ‘by saying that they are in favour of a custom approved by such a great man.’
Cesare added with a laugh: ‘Let us see whether this custom may be included among signor Ottaviano’s teachings (for I do not know whether he has yet stated all of them) and if the prince should make it a law.’
‘Well,’ answered signor Ottaviano, ‘the few I have stated would doubtless be enough to make the prince as good as those we find nowadays can be, though if one wished to go into details there would be far more to say.’
Then the Duchess added: ‘Since words cost nothing, do please tell us all that comes to your mind in the matter of instructing your prince.’
Signor Ottaviano replied: ‘Madam, I would teach him many other things, if only I knew them. And one of them would be that from among his subjects he should choose several of the noblest and wisest gentlemen, whom he should always consult, and that he should give them free leave and authority to tell him their opinion on any subject without hesitation; and he should so behave towards them that everyone would realize he wanted to know the truth about everything and detested lies. Apart from this council of nobles, I would advise him to choose from among the people others of lower rank to constitute a popular council and confer with the nobles concerning the affairs of the city, whether public or private. And in this way the prince, as the head, and the nobles and people, as the members, would form a single united body, the government of which would depend chiefly on the prince, yet would also include the others. And then this state would have the constitution of all three good forms of government, namely, monarchy, rule by the best and rule by the people.
‘Next, I should show him that of all the responsibilities that fall to a prince, the most important is justice. And to maintain this, there should be appointed to hold office men of wisdom and probity, who must be good as well as judicious, for otherwise their sagacity is merely cunning; indeed, when goodness is lacking, the skill and subtlety of the prosecutors means simply the ruin and destruction of law and justice, and then the blame for all their errors must fall on the one who has placed them in office. I should inform the prince that it is justice which inspires the reverence for God which is due to Him from all, and especially from rulers who should love Him above all else and direct all their actions to Him as being their true end. And, as Xenophon said, they should always
honour and love Him, though especially when they are prospering so that they may all the more confidently pray for His mercy in times of adversity.9 For it is impossible to govern either oneself or others well without the help of God, who to the good sometimes sends good fortune as His minister, to protect them against grave dangers, and sometimes adverse fortune to prevent their being so lulled by prosperity that they forget Him or human prudence, which often offsets ill fortune as a good player remedies bad throws of the dice by the way he places the board. Nor would I fail to remind the prince that he should be truly religious, but not superstitious or given to the folly of spells and fortune-telling; for if he combines true religion and reverence for God with human prudence he will also enjoy good fortune and the protection of God, always disposed to increase his prosperity in times of peace or war.
‘Next, I should tell him that he should love his country and his people, and not rule too oppressively, lest this should make him hateful to them; for this encourages sedition, conspiracy and a thousand other evils. Nor yet too tolerantly, lest he should become despised; and this encourages a dissolute and licentious life on the part of his subjects, rapine, theft, murder and disrespect for the laws, and often the total destruction and ruin of cities and kingdoms. Next, that he should love those near to him, according to their rank, observing in some things, such as justice and liberty, a strict equality; and in other things a reasonable inequality, as in being generous, in rewarding, in distributing honours and dignities, according to the differences in their merits, which should always be less rather than greater than the rewards they receive. In this way he would be not merely loved but almost adored by his subjects; nor to protect his life would he need to trust himself to foreigners, since for their own sake his own people would guard it with their own, and everyone would readily obey the laws, seeing that the prince obeyed them himself and was, as it were, their custodian and incorruptible executor. In this respect, he should command such confidence that, even if sometimes it were necessary to go against them in some manner, everyone would understand that he did it to good purpose, and his wishes would command the same respect and reverence as the laws themselves. In consequence, the minds of the citizens would be so tempered that the good would not seek to have more than they needed, and the bad could not do so. For very often excesssive riches are the cause of great calamities; as in poor Italy, which has been and still is the helpless prey of foreign troops, on account both of bad government and of its abundant wealth. So it would be advisable for most of the citizens to be neither very rich nor very poor, since those who are too rich often become proud and reckless, and the poor cowardly and dishonest. But those of moderate wealth neither seek to ensnare others nor risk being ensnared themselves; being the majority, they are also more powerful; and therefore neither the poor nor the rich can conspire against the prince or stir up sedition. So to avoid this evil, it is very salutary to keep everyone in a middle way of life.
The Book of the Courtier Page 34