114 Over the years many: J. Edge and colleagues at the University of Australia in Perth conducted a study of the effects of bicarbonate of soda on the ability of muscles to neutralize the acid that accumulates during high-intensity training. In Edge’s study, sixteen recreationally active women were recruited and randomly placed in two groups of eight. One group ingested bicarbonate of soda and the other ingested a placebo. The results showed that the bicarbonate group experienced greater improvements in lactate threshold and time to fatigue. Their working muscles were better able to neutralize the acid resulting from training, showing improvements to endurance performance. Edge J, Bishop D, Goodman C. Effects of chronic NaHCO3 ingestion during interval training on changes to muscle buffer capacity, metabolism, and short-term endurance performance. J Appl Physiol. 2006 Sep;101(3):918–25.
In a study at the University of Bedfordshire in the UK, researchers investigated the effects of sodium bicarbonate on maximum breath-hold time. Eight recreational breath-hold divers were recruited to partake in two bouts of 3 monitored breath holds while their faces were immersed in water. Following the study, the authors suggested that ingestion of bicarbonate of soda before breath holds prolongs maximum breath-hold time by approximately 8.6 percent. Sheard PW, Haughey H. Sodium bicarbonate and breath-hold times. Effects of sodium bicarbonate on voluntary face immersion breath-hold times. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2007 Mar–Apr;34(2):91–7.
Researchers from the Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Poland conducted a study to evaluate the effects of oral administration of sodium bicarbonate on swim performance in competitive youth swimmers. The swimmers completed two time trials: one after ingestion of bicarbonate and one after ingestion of a placebo. Total time for the 4 x 50m test trial improved from 1.54.28 to 1.52.85 s. In addition, bicarbonate had a significant effect on resting blood pH. Researchers concluded that the ingestion of sodium bicarbonate in youth athletes is an effective buffer during high-intensity interval swimming and suggested that such a procedure may be used in youth athletes to increase training intensity and swimming performance in competition at distances from 50 to 200m. Zajac A, Cholewa J, Poprzecki S, Waskiewicz Z, Langfort J. Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on swim performance in youth athletes. J Sports Sci Med. 2009 Mar 1;8(1):45–50.
114 During high-intensity: Edge, Bishop, Goodman 2006 Sep, 918–25.
114 By ingesting bicarbonate: Ibid.
114 The ingestion of bicarbonate: Sheard, Haughey. 2007 Mar–Apr, 91–7.
114 Researchers who have investigated: Zajac, Cholewa, Poprzecki, Waskiewicz, Langfort 2009 Mar 1, 45–50.
114 These benefits have even: Siegler and Hirscher from the department of sport, health, and exercise science, University of Hull, UK, conducted a study to observe “the ergogenic potential of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion on boxing performance.” Ten amateur boxers were prematched for weight and boxing ability, and ingested either bicarbonate or a placebo. Sparring bouts consisted of four 3-minute rounds, each separated by a 1-minute rest. The paper concluded that a standard dose of bicarbonate “improves punch efficacy during 4 rounds of sparring performance.” Siegler JC, Hirscher K. Sodium bicarbonate ingestion and boxing performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2010 Jan;24(1):103–8.
116 Marathon runners are: Almond CS, Shin AY, Fortescue EB, et al. Hyponatremia among runners in the Boston Marathon. N Eng J Med. 2005 Apr 14;352(15):1550–6.
116 In a 2002 study: Ibid.
116 The state medical: Smith S. Marathon runner’s death linked to excessive fluid intake. Boston Globe. August 13, 2002. www.remembercynthia.com/Hypona tremia_BostonGlobe.htm (accessed September 2, 2014).
116 Commenting on the tragedy: Doctors: Marathoner died from too much water, hyponatremia a danger in long-distance sports. WCVB 5. August 13, 2002. www.wcvb.com/Doctors-Marathoner-Died-From-Too-Much-Water/11334548#!bOn 5pH (accessed September 2, 2014).
117 In his book Facing Up: Grylls B. Facing Up: A Remarkable Journey to the Summit of Everest. London: Pan; 2001:29.
118 Almost half of those: Maggiorini M. Mountaineering and altitude sickness. Ther Umsch. 2001 Jun;58(6):387–93.
119 At least one study shows: In a dissertation by Dr. Zubieta-Calleja, entitled “Human adaptation to high altitude and to sea level,” the author noted that “patients with high hematocrit values had nearly twice as long breath holding times as normal and were able to sustain desaturation (of oxygen) at very low levels.” Zubieta-Calleja G. Human Adaptation to High Altitude and to Sea Level: Acid-Base Equilibrium, Ventilation and Circulation in Chronic Hypoxia. Copenhagen: VDM; 2010.
119 The air in mountainous: Gallagher SA, Hackett PH. High-altitude illness. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2004 May;22(2):329–55.
120 Other symptoms arising: Hackett PH, Roach RC. High-altitude illness. N Engl J Med. 2001 Jul 12;345(2):107–14.
120 This is a common occurrence: Moloney E, O’Sullivan S, Hogan T, Poulter LW, Burke CM. Airway dehydration: A therapeutic target in asthma? Chest. 2002 Jun;121(6):1806–11.
7. Bring the Mountain to You
121 World-renowned Brazilian: Lee F. Breathe right and win. Viewzone.com. www .viewzone.com/breathing.html (accessed August 15, 2012).
121 De Oliveira’s goal was to: Ibid.
121 De Oliveira’s techniques: Tom Piszkin. Interview with Luiz de Oliveira. Personal e-mail to Patrick McKeown, November 2012.
122 In total, the athletes: Ibid.
122 “But if you use my drill”: Lee, Breathe right and win.
122 Maintaining form during: Ibid.
122 According to de Oliveira: Tom Piszkin. Interview with Luiz de Oliveira. Personal e-mail to Patrick McKeown, November 2012.
122 By the end of 1984: Joaquim Cruz. Wikipedia. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaquim_Cruz (accessed April 20, 2013).
122 The legendary Czech: Litsky F. Emil Zatopek, 78, ungainly running star, dies. New York Times. November 23, 2000. www.nytimes.com/2000/11/23/sports/emil-zatopek-78-ungainly-running-star-dies.html (accessed September 2, 2014).
122 On the first day: Vaughan D. “Running”: A great Czech athlete inspires a French novelist. Radio Praha. August 24, 2013. www.radio.cz/en/section/books/running-a-great-czech-athlete-inspires-a-french-novelist (accessed September 2, 2014).
122 On the second day: Ibid.
123 Rupp’s headphones: Fairbourn J. Farah “confused” when making 2 hour claim says Salazar. Eightlane (blog). October 6, 2013. eightlane.org/farah-confused-making-2-hour-claim-salazar/ (accessed September 2, 2014).
131 However, unlike some: Sheila Taormina. Personal e-mail to Patrick McKeown, December 9, 2013.
131 After breath-hold training: French researcher Lemaître found that breath holds could also improve swimming coordination. After breath-hold training, swimmers showed increases in VO2 peak as well as an increase in the distance traveled with each swimming stroke. The researchers concluded that their studies indicated that “breath-hold training improves effectiveness at both peak exercise and submaximal exercise and can also improve swimming technique by promoting greater propulsive continuity.” Lemaître F, Seifert L, Polin D, Juge J, Tourny-Chollet C, Chollet D. Apnea training effects on swimming coordination. J Strength Cond Res. 2009 Sep;23(6):1909–14.
132 Researchers investigating: In addition to studying the effects of breath-hold training on swimming coordination, Lemaître and colleagues also investigated the effects of short repeated breath holds on breathing pattern in trained underwater hockey players (UHP) and untrained subjects (controls). Twenty male subjects were recruited, with ten members of a national underwater hockey team allocated to the UHP group, and ten subjects with little training and no breath hold experience allocated to the control group.
The subjects performed 5 breath holds while treading water with their faces immersed. The breath holds were spaced 5 minutes apart and performed after a deep but not maximal inhalation. The underwater hockey players were noted to have reduced breathlessness and higher concentration of CO2 in exhaled breath after the t
est (ETCO2). Lemaître et al. 2007 Nov–Dec, 407–14.
132 In addition, lactate: Ibid.
132 The effect of this method: Researchers from the Human Performance Laboratory, University of Calgary, Canada, conducted a study to investigate the relationship between a decrease of oxygen concentration during exercise and erythropoietin (EPO) production. Five athletes cycled for 3 minutes at an intensity greater than maximal (supramaximal) at two different elevations: 1,000m and 2,100m. Oxygen saturation of hemoglobin was lower than 91 percent for approximately 24 seconds during exercise at 1,000 meters and for 136 seconds during exercise at 2,100 meters, with EPO levels increasing by 24 percent and 36 percent respectively following the exercise. Roberts D, Smith DJ, Donnelly S, Simard S. Plasma-volume contraction and exercise-induced hypoxaemia modulate erythropoietin production in healthy humans. Clin Sci. 2000 Jan;98(1):39–45.
Korean researchers Choi et al. carried out a study on 263 subjects to determine the relationship between hematocrit levels and obstructive sleep apnea (involuntary holding of the breath during sleep). Patients with severe sleep apnea had significantly higher levels of hematocrit than mild and moderate OSA. Study findings showed that hematocrit levels were significantly correlated with percent of time spent at oxygen saturation of below 90 percent, as well as average oxygen saturation. Choi JB, Loredo JS, Norman D, et al. Does obstructive sleep apnea increase hematocrit? Sleep Breath. 2006 Sep;10(3):155–60.
132 Lowering oxygen saturation: Roberts, Smith, Donnelly, Simard 2000, 39–45.
135 Maintaining an oxygen: Ibid.
136 Performing just 5 maximum: Lemaître et al. 2007 Nov–Dec, 407–14. Schagatay E, Haughey H, Reimers J. Speed of spleen volume changes evoked by serial apneas. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005 Jan;93(4):447–52.
137 Breath-hold divers: Resting Hb mass in trained breath-hold divers was 5 percent higher than in untrained divers. In addition, breath-hold divers showed a larger relative increase to Hb after three apneas. The paper noted that “the long-term effect of apnea training on Hb mass might be implicated in elite divers’ performance.” Lemaître, Joulia, Chollet 2010, 413–5.
137 In addition, experienced: Matt Richardson investigated the hematological responses to maximal apneas performed by three groups: elite apneic divers, elite cross-country skiers, and untrained subjects. Pretest hemoglobin tended to be higher in the diver group than both skiers and untrained individuals. Each subject was required to perform 3 maximal breath holds separated by 2 minutes of rest and normal breathing. Following the breath holds, all groups responded with increased hemoglobin, with divers showing the largest increase. The duration of the third breath-hold time was 187 seconds in divers, 111 seconds in skiers, and 121 seconds in untrained individuals. The authors observed that the higher Hb concentration in divers “suggests that regular apnea practice could impart a specific training effect, effecting haematological responses to apnea in a manner that differs from that of exercise training.” Richardson M, de Bruijn R, Holmberg HC, Björklund G, Haughey H, Schagatay E. Increase of hemoglobin concentration after maximal apneas in divers, skiers, and untrained humans. Can J Appl Physiol. 2005 Jun;30(3):276-81.
Splenic size was measured before and after repetitive breath-hold dives to approximately 6 meters in ten Korean ama (diving women) and in three Japanese males who were not experienced in breath holding. Following the breath holds, splenic size and hematocrit were unchanged in the Japanese male divers. In the ama, splenic volume decreased 19.5 percent, hemoglobin increased by 9.5 percent, and hematocrit increased 9.5 percent. The study showed that long-term repeated apneas induce a stronger spleen contraction and resultant hematological response. Hurford WE, Hong SK, Park YS, et al. Splenic contraction during breath-hold diving in the Korean ama. J Appl Physiol. 1990 Sep;69(3):932–6.
138 For example, a study: Andersson and colleagues from Lund University in Sweden conducted a study involving fourteen healthy volunteers who performed a series of 5 maximal duration breath holds while their faces were immersed in water. The authors observed that breath-hold time increased by 43 percent across the series of breath holds. Andersson JP, Schagatay E. Repeated apneas do not affect the hypercapnic ventilatory response in the short term. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009 Mar;105(4):569–74.
138 Another study found: French researchers Joulia et al. observed that trained divers who had 7–10 years of experience in breath-hold diving were able to hold their breath for up to 440 seconds at rest, compared with inexperienced individuals who held their breath for 145 seconds at most. Joulia F, Steinberg JG, Wolff F, Gavarry O, Jammes Y. Reduced oxidative stress and blood lactic acidosis in trained breath-hold human divers. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2002 Oct;133(1–2):121–30.
138 Similarly, the duration: Joulia F, Steinberg JG, Faucher M, et al. Breath-hold training of humans reduces oxidative stress and blood acidosis after static and dynamic apnea. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2003 Aug 14;137(1):19–27.
8. Finding the Zone
141 “Your whole being is involved”: Geirland J. Go with the flow. Wired. September 1996.
143 Recounting the race: Bentley R, Langford R. Inner Speed Secrets: Mental Strategies to Maximize Your Racing Performance. Osceola, WI: MBI Pub. Co.; 2000.
143 We no longer give: Kevin Kelly. Personal e-mail to Patrick McKeown, August 15, 2013.
144 Selker suggests: Turning into digital goldfish. BBC. February 22, 2002. news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1834682.stm (accessed September 2, 2014).
144 Reading a piece: Bilton N. Steve Jobs was a low-tech parent. New York Times. September 10, 2014. www.nytimes.com/2014/09/11/fashion/steve-jobs-apple-was-a-low-tech-parent.html?_r=0 (accessed January 24, 2015).
144 “They haven’t used it”: Ibid.
145 “The focus on oneself”: Giggsy doing it for himself. Yahoo Eurosport UK. November 28, 2013. Available at sg.newshub.org/giggsy_doing_it_for_himself_ 53525.html (accessed September 2, 2014).
145 Earl Woods believed: Carter B. Tiger emerges from Woods as golfing icon. ESPN Classic. espn.go.com/classic/biography/s/woods_tiger.html (accessed September 2, 2014).
145 In the film: The Legend of Bagger Vance movie review. Movieguide. www.movieguide.org/reviews/the-legend-of-bagger-vance.html (accessed September 2, 2014).
146 In an interview: Isaacson W. Steve Jobs. CD. Simon & Schuster Audio; 2011.
146 Eight Marine infantry: Johnson DC, Thom N, Stanley E, et al. Modifying resilience mechanisms in at-risk individuals: A controlled study of mindfulness training in marines preparing for deployment. Am J Psychiatry. 2014 Aug;171(8):844–53.
146 In other studies with: Hruby P. Marines expanding use of meditation training. Washington Times. December 5, 2012. www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/dec/5/marines-expanding-use-of-meditation-training (accessed December 3, 2014).
147 Until recently: Congleton C, Hölzel BK, Lazar SW. Mindfulness can literally change your brain. Harvard Business Review. January 8, 2015. hbr.org/2015/01/mindfulness-can-literally-change-your-brain (accessed January 24, 2015).
147 A team of scientists: Ibid.
162 However, in a: ROG—The Ronan O’Gara Documentry [sic]. RTE Television. www.rte.ie/tv/programmes/rog.html (accessed September 2, 2014).
167 A study investigating: The results showed that hyperventilation significantly affects mental performance. Bruno Balke and colleagues from the U.S. Air Force School of Aviation at Randolph Field, Texas, researched the effect of hyperventilation among jet pilots and whether it was a possible cause of unexplainable aircraft accidents. The objective of the study was to investigate the affect of hyperventilation on muscular activity that required mental processing. Six healthy male individuals were tested on a U.S. Air Force coordination apparatus before, during, and after hyperventilation of 30 minutes duration. Lung carbon dioxide decreased to 12–15 mmHg during, hyperventilation (normal PaCO2 is 40 mmHg). The researchers found that mental performance deteriorated by 15 percent when the concentration of arterial carbon dioxide reduced to 20 to 25 mmHg, and by 30 percent when carbon d
ioxide concentration in arterial blood lowered to 14 mmHg. Balke B, Lillehei JP. Effect of hyperventilation on performance. J Appl Physiol. 1956 Nov 1;9(3):371–4.
167 Another study found: Researchers from the department of psychology, University of Leuven, Belgium, investigated the effect of reduced carbon dioxide on performance that required attention. The paper reported that hyperventilation that reduces arterial concentration of carbon dioxide is associated with physiological changes in the brain and with subjective symptoms of dizziness and concentration problems. The researchers found that more errors were made and progressively slower reaction times were observed during recovery from lower pressure of carbon dioxide. Van Diest I, Stegen K, Van de Woestijne KP, Schippers N, Van den Bergh O. Hyperventilation and attention: Effects of hypocapnia on performance in a stroop task. Biol Psychol. 2000 Jul;53(2–3):233–52.
167 A study from the department: Ley and colleagues from the department of psychology and statistics at the University at Albany in New York found that students with high anxiety had lower levels of end-tidal carbon dioxide and faster respiration frequency than low-anxiety students. The study found that the “high-test-anxiety group reported a greater frequency of symptoms of hyperventilation and a larger drop in level of end-tidal CO2 during testing than low-test-anxiety group.” Ley R, Yelich G. Fractional end-tidal CO2 as an index of the effects of stress on math performance and verbal memory of test-anxious adolescents. Biol Psychol. 2006;Mar;71(3):350–1.
168 Sleep apnea: Kim et al. 2010, 533–9. Kreivi et al. 2010, 488–94. Ohki et al. 1996, 228–30. Lee et al. 2007 Jun, 1102–6. Scharf, Cohen 1998 Oct, 279–87; quiz 287–90. Wasilewska, Kaczmarski 2010, 201–12. Rappai, Collop, Kemp, deShazo 2003, 2309–23. Izu SC, Itamoto CH, Pradella-Hallinan M, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) in mouth breathing children. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2010 Sep–Oct;76(5):552–6.
9. Rapid Weight Loss Without Dieting
The Oxygen Advantage: The Simple, Scientifically Proven Breathing Techniques for a Healthier, Slimmer, Faster, and Fitter You Page 29