78. There are also animals in the water, which at times come out on the land: some with Greek names, like the octopus, the hippopotamus, the crocodile; others with Latin names, like rana ‘frog,’ anas ‘duck,’ mergus ‘diver.’ Whence the Greeks give the name amphibia to those which can live both in the water and on the land. Of these, the rana is named from its voice, the anas from nare ‘to swim,’ the mergus because it catches its food by mergendo ‘diving’ into the water.
79. Likewise there are other names in this class, that are from the Greeks, as querquedula ‘teal,’ because it is κερκήδης, and alcedo ‘kingfisher,’ because this is ἁλκυών; and Latin names, such as testudo ‘tortoise,’ because this animal is covered with a testa ‘shell,’ and lolligo ‘squid,’ because it volat ‘flies’ up from under, originally volligo, but now with one letter changed. Just as in Egypt there is a quadruped living in the river, so there are river quadrupeds in Latium, named lutra ‘otter’ and fiber ‘beaver.’ The lutra is so named because it is said to cut off the roots of trees on the bank and set the trees loose: from luere ‘to loose,’ lutra. The beaver was called fiber because it is usually seen very far off on the bank of the river to right or to left, and the ancients called a thing that was very far off februm; from which in blankets the last part is called fimbriae ‘fringe’ and the last part in the liver is the fibra ‘fibre.’
80. Among the living beings on the land, I shall speak first of terms which apply to human beings, then of domestic animals, third of wild beasts. I shall start from the offices of the state. The Consul was so named as the one who should consulere ‘ask the advice of’ people and senate, unless rather from this fact whence Accius takes it when he says in the Brutus:
Let him who counsels right, be called the Consul.
The Praetor was so named as the one who should praeire ‘go before’ the law and the army; whence Lucilius said this:
Then to go out in front and before is the duty of praetors.
81. The Censor was so named as the one at whose censio ‘rating,’ that is, arbitrium ‘judgement,’ the people should be rated. The Aedile, as the one who was to look after aedes ‘buildings’ sacred and private. The Quaestors, from quaerere ‘to seek,’ who conquirerent ‘should seek into’ the public moneys and illegal doings, which the triumviri capitales ‘the prison board’ now investigate; from these, afterwards, those who pronounce judgement on the matters of investigation were named quaesitores ‘inquisitors.’ The Tribuni Militum ‘tribunes of the soldiers,’ because of old there were sent to the army three each on behalf of the three tribes of Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities. The Tribuni Plebei ‘tribunes of the plebs,’ because from among the tribunes of the soldiers tribunes of the plebs were first created, in the Secession to Crustumerium, for the purpose of defending the plebs ‘populace.’
82. The Dictator, because he was named by the consul as the one to whose dictum ‘order’ all should be obedient. The Magister Equitum ‘master of the cavalry,’ because he has supreme power over the cavalry and the replacement troops, just as the dictator is the highest authority over the people, from which he also is called magister, but of the people and not of the cavalry. The remaining officials, because they are inferior to these magistri ‘masters,’ are called magistratus ‘magistrates,’ derived just as albatus ‘whitened, white-clad’ is derived from albus ‘white.’
83. The sacerdotes ‘priests’ collectively were named from the sacra ‘sacred rites.’ The pontifices ‘high-priests,’ Quintus Scaevola the Pontifex Maximus said, were named from posse ‘to be able’ and facere ‘to do,’ as though potentifices. For my part I think that the name comes from pons ‘bridge’; for by them the Bridge-on-Piles was made in the first place, and it was likewise repeatedly repaired by them, since in that connexion rites are performed on both sides of the Tiber with no small ceremony. The curiones were named from the curiae; they are created for conducting sacred rites in the curiae.
84. The flamines ‘flamens,’ because in Latium they always kept their heads covered and had their hair girt with a woollen filum ‘band,’ were originally called filamines. Individually they have distinguishing epithets from that god whose rites they perform; but some are obvious, others obscure: obvious, like Martialis and Volcanalis; obscure are Dialis and Furinalis, since Dialis is from Jove, for he is called also Diovis, and Furinalis from Furrina, who even has a Furinal Festival in the calendar. So also the Flamen Falacer from the divine father Falacer.
85. The Salii were named from salitare ‘to dance,’ because they had the custom and the duty of dancing yearly in the assembly-places, in their ceremonies. The Luperci were so named because they make offerings in the Lupercal at the festival of the Lupercalia. Fratres Arvales ‘Arval Brothers’ was the name given to those who perform public rites to the end that the ploughlands may bear fruits: from ferre ‘to bear’ and arva ‘ploughlands’ they are called Fratres Arvales. But some have said that they were named from fratria ‘brotherhood’: fratria is the Greek name of a part of the people, as at Naples even now. The Sodales Titii ‘Titian Comrades’ are so named from the titiantes ‘twittering’ birds which they are accustomed to watch in some of their augural observations.
86. The Fetiales ‘herald-priests,’ because they were in charge of the state’s word of honour in matters between peoples; for by them it was brought about that a war that was declared should be a just war, and by them the war was stopped, that by a foedus ‘treaty’ the fides ‘honesty’ of the peace might be established. Some of them were sent before war should be declared, to demand restitution of the stolen property, and by them even now is made the foedus ‘treaty,’ which Ennius writes was pronounced fidus.
87. In military affairs, the praetor was so called as the one who should praeire ‘go at the head’ of the army. The imperator ‘commander,’ from the imperium ‘dominion’ of the people, as the one who crushed those enemies who had attacked it. The legati ‘attachés,’ those who were lecti ‘chosen’ officially, whose aid or counsel the magistrates should use when away from Rome, or who should be messengers of the senate or of the people. The exercitus ‘army,’ because by exercitando ‘training’ it is improved. The legio ‘legion,’ because the soldiers leguntur ‘are gathered’ in the levy.
88. The cohors ‘cohort,’ because, just as on the farm the cohors ‘yard’ coniungitur ’is joined together’ of several buildings and becomes a certain kind of unity, so in the army it copulatur ’is coupled together’ of several maniples: the cohors which is on the farm, is so called because around that place the flock cooritur ‘assembles,’ although Hypsicrates says that the cohors on the farm, as said by the poets, is the word which in Greek is χόρτος ‘farmyard.’ The manipulus ‘maniple’ is the smallest manus ‘troop’ which has a standard of its own to follow. The centuria ‘century’ consists of those who are under one centurio ‘centurion,’ whose proper number is centenarius ‘one hundred each.’
89. Milites ‘soldiers,’ because at first the legion was made of three milia ‘thousands,’ and the individual tribes of Titienses, Ramnes, and Luceres sent their milia ‘thousands’ of milites ‘soldiers.’ The hastati ‘spearmen’ were so called as those who in the first line fought with hastae ‘spears,’ the pilani ‘javelin-men’ as being those who fought with pila ‘javelins,’ the principes ‘first-men’ as those who from the principium ‘beginning’ fought with swords; these words were less perspicuous later, when tactics had been changed. The pilani are called also triarii ‘third-line-men,’ because in the battle arrangement they were set in the rear, in the third line, as reserves; because these men habitually subsidebant ‘sat’ while waiting, from this fact the subsidium ‘reserve force’ got its name, whence Plautus says:
Come now, all of you sit by as troopers in reserve are wont.
90. Auxilium ‘auxiliaries’ was so called from auctus ‘increase,’ when those foreigners who were intended to give help had added themselves to the fighters. Praesidium ‘garrison’ was said
of those who praesidebant ‘sat in front’ outside the main camp somewhere, that the district might be safer. Obsidium ‘siege’ was said from obsidere ‘to sit in the way,’ that the enemy might not be able to sally forth. Insidiae ‘ambush’ likewise from insidere ‘to sit in a place,’ since they did this that they might more easily diminish the enemy’s forces. Duplicarii ‘doublers’ were those to whom by order duplicia ‘double’ rations were given on account of their notable valour.
91. Turma ‘squadron’ is from terima (the E has changed to U), because they were composed of ter ‘three times’ ten horsemen, from the three tribes of Titienses, Ramnes, and Luceres. Therefore the leaders of the individual decuriae ‘groups of ten’ were called decurions, who from this fact are even now three in each squadron. Those whom at first the decurions themselves adoptabant ‘chose’ as their assistants, were at the start called optiones ‘choices’; but now the tribunes, to increase their influence, do the appointing of them. Tubicines ‘trumpeters,’ from tuba ‘trumpet’ and canere ‘to sing or play’; in like fashion liticines ‘cornetists.’ The classicus ‘class-musician’ is named from the classis ‘class of citizens’; he likewise plays on the horn or the cornet, for example when they call the classes to gather for an assembly.
92. Among the words which have to do with personal fortune, some are not very clear, such as pauper ‘poor,’ dives ‘rich,’ miser ‘wretched,’ beatus ‘blest,’ and others as well. Pauper is from paulus lar ‘scantily equipped home.’ Mendicus ‘beggar’ is from minus ‘less,’ said of one who, when there is a need, has minus ‘less’ than nothing. Dives ‘rich’ is from divus ‘godlike person,’ who, as being a deus ‘god,’ seems to lack nothing. Opulentus ‘wealthy’ is from ops ‘property,’ said of one who has it in abundance; from the same, inops ‘destitute’ is said of him who lacks ops, and from the same source copis ‘well supplied’ and copiosus ‘abundantly furnished.’ Pecuniosus ‘moneyed’ is from a large amount of pecunia ‘money’; pecunia is from pecu ‘flock’: for it was among keepers of flocks that these words originated.
93. For artisans the chief cause of the names is the art itself, that is, that from the ars medicina ‘medical art’ the medicus ‘physician’ should be named, and from the ars sutrina ‘shoemaker’s art’ the sutor ‘shoemaker,’ and not directly from mederi ‘to cure’ and suere ‘to sew,’ though these are the absolutely final sources for such names. For these are the roots of these things, as will be shown in the next book. Therefore, because an artisan is called from his art and not many names in this class are obscure, I shall leave them and go on.
94. There is a like origin for those names which are given from some special skill, such as praestigiator ‘juggler,’ monitor ‘prompter,’ nomenclator ‘namer’; so also those which are derived from a special interest, such as cursor ‘runner,’ natator ‘swimmer,’ pugil ‘boxer.’ The words which are in this class too, are generally obvious, like legulus ‘picker,’ one of olives and the other of grapes. If these are less obvious in the cases of vindemiator, vestigator, and venator, still the same principle holds, that vindemiator ‘vintager’ is said either because he gathers the vinum ‘wine’ or because they demunt ‘take’ this from the vitis ‘grapevine’; vestigator ‘tracker,’ from the vestigia ‘tracks’ of the beasts which he trails; venator ‘hunter’ from ventus ‘wind,’ because he follows the stag towards the wind and into the wind.
95. So much about men: what comes next here is about cattle, as follows. Pecus ‘cattle,’ from the fact that they perpascebant ‘grazed,’ whence as a whole they were called pecora ‘flocks and herds.’ Because the herdsmen’s pecunia ‘wealth’ then lay in their pecus ‘flocks’ and the base for standing is a pes ‘foot’ (from which in buildings the ground is called a great pes ‘foot’ and a man who has founded a business is said to have established his pes ‘footing’), from pes ‘foot’ they gave the name pecus, pecudis ‘one head of cattle,’ just as from the same they said pedica ‘fetter’ and pedisequus ‘footman’ and peculiariae ‘privately owned’ sheep or anything else: for this was the first private property. Hence they called it a peculatus ‘peculation’ from the state in the beginning, when a fine was imposed in pecus ‘cattle’ and there was a collection into the state treasury, of what had been diverted.
96. Regarding cattle from which there is larger profit, there is the same use of names here as among the Greeks: sus ‘swine,’ the same as ὗς; bos ‘cow,’ the same as βοῦς; taurus ‘bull,’ the same as ταῦρος; likewise ovis ‘sheep,’ the same as ὄις: for thus the ancients used to say, not πρόβατον as they do now. This identity of the names in Latium and in Greece may be the result of invention after the natural utterances of the animals. Armenta ‘plough-oxen,’ because they raised oxen especially that they might select some of them for arandum ‘ploughing’; thence they were called arimenta, from which the third letter I was afterwards squeezed out. Vitulus calf,’ because in Greek it was anciently ἰταλός; or from vegitulus, a name given because most calves are vegeti ‘frisky.’ A iuvencus ‘bullock’ was one which could now iuvare ‘help’ in tilling the fields.
97. Capra ‘she-goat’ was originally carpa ‘cropper,’ from which is written All-cropping she-goats.
Hircus ‘buck,’ which the Sabines call fircus; and what there is fedus, in Latium is hedus ‘kid’ in the country, and in the City it is haedus, with an added A, as is the case with many words. Porcus ‘pig,’ because the Sabines say aprunus porcus ‘boar pig’; therefore porcus ‘pig,’ unless it comes from the Greeks, because at Athens in the Books of the Sacrifices πόρκη ‘female pig’ is written, and πόρκος ‘male pig.’
98. Aries ‘ram,’ as some used to say, from arae ‘altars’; our ancients said ariuga ‘altar-mate,’ and from this formed a masculine ariugus. These are those whose vital organs are in the sacrifices boiled in a pot and not roasted on a spit, of which Accius writes and which we see in the Pontifical Books. Among sacrificial victims, that victim which by the specifications is to have horns, they call an ariuga; but if the testicles are removed from a male sheep and its nature is thereby forcibly versa ‘altered,’ the name verbex ‘wether’ is derived as its designation.
99. An agnus ‘lamb’ is so named because it is agnatus ‘born as an addition’ to the flock of sheep. A catulus ‘puppy’ is named from its quick and keen scent, like the names Cato and Catulus; and from this, canis ‘dog’: unless, just as the trumpet and the horn are said to canere ‘sing’ when they give some signal, so the canis is named because it likewise, both when guarding the house day or night, and when engaged in hunting, gives the signal with its voice.
100. The names of wild beasts are likewise some of them foreign, such as panthera ‘panther,’ leo ‘lion’: both Greek, whence also certain nets called panther and lioness, and there are courtesans named Pantheris and Leaena. The tigris ‘tiger,’ which is as it were a striped lion, which as yet they have not been able to take alive, has its name from the Armenian language, for in Armenia both an arrow and a very swift river are named Tigris. The name of the ursus ‘bear’ is of Lucanian origin, or our ancestors called it from its voice, and so did the Lucanians. The camelus ‘camel’ has come to Latium bringing its own Syrian name with it, and so has the camelopardalis ‘giraffe’ which was recently brought from Alexandria, so called because it was in form like a camel and in spots like a panther.
101. Apri ‘boars,’ from the fact that they frequent aspera ‘rough’ places, unless from the Greeks, because in Greek these are <κ>άπροι. Caprea ‘roe-deer,’ from a certain likeness to the capra ‘she-goat.’ Cervi ‘stags,’ because they gerunt ‘carry’ big horns, and so they are gervi; the word has changed G to C, as has happened in many words. Lepus ‘hare,’ because the Sicilians, like certain Aeolian Greeks, say λέπορις. Inasmuch as the Sicilians originated from Rome, as our old Annals say, perhaps they carried the word from here to Sicily, but also left it here behind them. Volpes ‘fox,’ as Aelius used to
say, because it volat ‘flies’ with its pedes ‘feet.’
102. The next living beings to be discussed are those which are said to live, and yet do not breathe, such as bushes. Virgultum ‘bush’ is said from viridis ‘green,’ and viridis from a certain vis ‘power’ of moisture: if this moisture has thoroughly dried out, the bush dies. Vitis ‘grape-vine,’ because it is the source of vinum ‘wine.’ Malum ‘apple,’ because the Aeolian Greeks call it μᾶλον. The pinus ‘pine,’... The iuglans ‘walnut,’ because while this nut is like an acorn before it is cleansed of its hull, the inner nut, being best and biggest, is called iu-glans from Iu-piter and glans ‘acorn.’ The same word nux ‘nut’ is so called because its juice makes a person’s skin black, just as nox ‘night’ makes the air black.
103. Of those which are grown in gardens, some are called by foreign names, as, by Greek names, ocimum ‘basil,’ menta ‘mint,’ ruta ‘rue,’ which they now call πήγανον; likewise caulis ‘cabbage,’ lapathium ‘sorrel,’ radix ‘radish’: for thus the ancient Greeks called what they now call ῥάφανος; likewise these from Greek names: serpyllum ‘thyme,’ rosa ‘rose,’ each with one letter changed; likewise Latin names from these Greek names: κολίανδρον ‘coriander,’ μαλάχη, κύμινον ‘cummin’; likewise lilium ‘lily’ from λείριον and malva ‘mallow’ from μαλάχη and sisymbrium ‘mint’ from σισύμβριον.
Delphi Complete Works of Varro Page 42