Delphi Complete Works of Varro

by Marcus Terentius Varro

  [1.1] When Menates had left, Cossinius remarked to me: “We shall not let you go until you have set forth those three topics of which you had begun to speak when we were interrupted.” “Which three?” inquired Murrius; “do you mean what you were saying to me yesterday about animal husbandry?” “The points our friend here had begun to discuss,” said he, “the origin, the dignity, and science. . .” [2] “Well,” said I, “I shall speak at least of the historical side and tell what I have learned of the two topics first mentioned — the origin and the dignity. Scrofa will take up the tale at the third division, when it becomes a science. He is, if I may quote Greek to half-Greek shepherds, ‘a much better man than I am.’ For he is the man who taught your son-in-law, Gaius Lucilius Hirtius, whose flocks in the country of the Bruttii are renowned.” “But you shall have this discussion by us,” said Scrofa, “only on condition that you, who are the cattle-raising champions of Epirus, shall repay us by disclosing what you know of the subject; for no man can know everything.” [3] When I had accepted the proposal and was to open the play — not that I do not own flocks myself in Italy, but not all who own a harp are harpers” — I began: “As it is a necessity of nature that people and flocks have always existed (whether there was an original generating principle of animals, as Thales of Miletus and Zeno of Citium thought, or, on the contrary, as was the view of Pythagoras of Samos and of Aristotle of Stagira, there was no point of beginning for them), it is a necessity that from the remotest antiquity of human life they have come down, as Dicaearchus teaches, step by step to our age, and that the most distant stage was that state of nature [4] in which man lived on those products which the virgin earth brought forth of her own accord; they descended from this stage into the second, the pastoral, in which they gathered for their use acorns, arbutus berries, mulberries, and other fruits by plucking them from wild and uncultivated trees and bushes, and likewise caught, shut up, and tamed such wild animals as they could for the like advantage. There is good reason to suppose that, of these, sheep were first taken, both because they are useful and because they are tractable; for these are naturally most placid and most adapted to the life of man. For to his food they brought milk and cheese, and to his body wool and skins for clothing. [5] Then by a third stage man came from the pastoral life to that of the tiller of the soil; in this they retained much of the former two stages, and after reaching it they went far before reaching our stage. Even now there are several species of wild animals in various places: as of sheep in Phrygia, where numerous flocks are seen, and in Samothrace those goats which are called in Latin rotae; for there are many wild goats in Italy in the vicinity of Mount Fiscellum and Mount Tetrica. As to swine, everybody knows — except those who think that wild boars ought not to be called swine. There are even now many quite wild cattle in Dardania, Maedica, and Thrace; wild asses in Phrygia and Lycaonia, and wild horses at several points in Hither Spain.

  Origo, quam dixi; dignitas, quam dicam. De antiquis illustrissimus quisque pastor erat, ut ostendit et Graeca et Latina lingua et veteres poetae, qui alios vocant polyarnas, alios polymelos, alios polybutas; qui ipsas pecudes propter caritatem aureas habuisse pelles tradiderunt, ut Argis, Atreus quam sibi Thyesten subduxe queritur; ut in Colchide ad Aeetam, ad cuius arietis pellem profecti regio genere dicuntur Argonautae; ut in Libya ad Hesperidas, unde aurea mala, id est secundum antiquam consuetudinem capras et oves, Hercules ex Africa in Graeciam exportavit. Ea enim a sua voce Graeci appellarunt mela. Nec multo secus nostri ab eadem voce, sed ab alia littera (vox earum non me, sed be sonare uidetur), oves belare vocem efferentes, e quo post balare dicunt extrita littera, ut in multis. Quod si apud antiquos non magnae dignitatis pecus esset, in caelo describendo astrologi non appellassent eorum vocabulis signa, quae non modo non dubitarunt ponere, sed etiam ab iis principibus duodecim signa multi numerant, ab ariete et tauro, cum ea praeponerent Apollini et Herculi. Ii enim dei ea secuntur, sed appellantur Gemini. Nec satis putarunt de duodecim signis sextam partem obtinere pecudum nomina, nisi adiecissent, ut quartam tenerent, capricornum. Praeterea a pecuariis addiderunt capram, haedos, canes. An non etiam item in mari terraque ab his regionibus notae, in mari, quod nominaverunt a capris Aegaeum pelagus, ad Syriam montem Taurum, in Sabinis Cantherium montem, Bosporum unum Thracium, alterum Cimmerium? Nonne in terris multa, ut oppidum in Graecia Hippion Argos? Denique non Italia a vitulis, ut scribit Piso? Romanorum vero populum a pastoribus esse ortum quis non dicit? Quis Faustulum nescit pastorem fuisse nutricium, qui Romulum et Remum educavit? Non ipsos quoque fuisse pastores obtinebit, quod Parilibus potissimum condidere urbem? Non idem, quod multa etiam nunc ex vetere instituto bubus et ovibus dicitur, et quod aes antiquissimum quod est flatum pecore est notatum, et quod, urbs cum condita est, tauro et vacca qua essent muri et portae definitum, et quod, populus Romanus cum lustratur suovitaurilibus, circumaguntur verres aries taurus, et quod nomina multa hebemus ab utroque pecore, a maiore et a minore — a minore Porcius, Ovinius, Caprilius; sic a maiore Equitius, Taurius, Asinius — et idem cognomina adsignificare quod dicuntur, ut Anni Caprae, Statili Tauri, Pomponi Vituli, sic a pecudibus alia multa?

  Relicum est de scientia pastorali, de qua est dicendum, quod Scrofa noster, cui haec aetas defert rerum rusticarum omnium palmam, quo melius potest, dicet. Cum convertissent in eum ora omnes, Scrofa, Igitur, inquit, est scientia pecoris parandi ac pascendi, ut fructus quam possint maximi capiantur ex eo, a quibus ipsa pecunia nominata est; nam omnis pecuniae pecus fundamentum. Ea partes habet novem, discretas ter ternas, ut sit una de minoribus pecudibus, cuius genera tria, oves capra sus, altera de pecore maiore, in quo sunt item ad tres species natura discreti, boves asini equi. Tertia pars est in pecuaria quae non parantur, ut ex iis capiatur fructus, sed propter eam aut ex ea sunt, muli canes pastores. Harum una quaeque in se generalis partis habet minimum novenas, quarum in pecore parando necessariae quattuor, alterae in pascendo totidem; praeterea communis una. Ita fiunt omnium partes minimum octoginta et una, et quidem necessariae nec parvae. Primum ut bonum pares pecus, unum scire oportet, qua aetate quamque pecudem parare habereque expediat. Itaque in bubulo pecore minoris emitur annicula et supra decem annorum, quod a bima aut trima fructum ferre incipit neque longius post decimum annum procedit. Nam prima aetas omnis pecoris et extrema sterilis. E quattuor primis altera pars est cognitio formae unius cuiusque pecudis, qualis sit. Magni enim interest, cuius modi quaeque sit ad fructum. Ita potius bovem emunt cornibus nigrantibus quam albis, capram amplam quam parvam, sues procero corpore, capitibus ut sint parvis. Tertia pars est, quo sit seminio quaerendum. Hoc nomine enim asini Arcadici in Graecia nobilitati, in Italia Reatini, usque eo ut mea memoria asinus venierit sestertiis milibus sexaginta et unae quadrigae Romae constiterint quadringentis milibus. Quarta pars est de iure in parando, quem ad modum quamque pecudem emi oporteat civili iure. Quod enim alterius fuit, id ut fiat meum, necesse est aliquid intercedere, neque in omnibus satis est stipulatio aut solutio nummorum ad mutationem domini. In emptione alias stipulandum sanum esse, alias e sano pecore, alias neutrum.

  Alterae partes quattuor sunt, cum iam emeris, observandae, de pastione, de fetura, de nutricatu, de sanitate. Pascendi primus locus qui est, eius ratio triplex, in qua regione quamque potissimum pascas et quando et qui, ut capras in montuosis potius locis fruticibus quam in herbidis campis, equas contra. Neque eadem loca aestiva et hiberna idonea omnibus ad pascendum. Itaque greges ovium longe abiguntur ex Apulia in Samnium aestiuatum atque ad publicanum profitentur, ne, si inscriptum pecus paverint, lege censoria committant. Muli e Rosea campestri aestate exiguntur in Burbures altos montes. Qui potissimum quaeque pecudum pascatur, habenda ratio, nec solum quod faeno fit satura equa aut bos, cum sues hoc vitent et quaerant glandem, sed quod hordeum et faba interdum sit quibusdam obiciendum et dandum bubus lupinum et lactariis medica et cytisum; praeterea quod ante admissuram diebus triginta arietibus ac tauris datur plus cibi, ut vires habeant, feminis bubus demitur, quod macescentes melius concipere dicuntur. Secunda pars est de fetura. Nunc appello feturam a conceptu
ad partum; hi enim praegnationis primi et extremi fines. Quare primum videndum de admissione, quo quaeque tempore ut ineant facere oporteat. Nam ut suillo pecori a favonio ad aequinoctium vernum putant aptum, sic ovillo ab arcturi occasu usque ad aquilae occasum. Praeterea habenda ratio, quanto antequam incipiat admissura fieri mares a feminis secretos habeant, quod fere in omnibus binis mensibus ante faciunt et armentarii et opiliones. Altera pars est, in fetura quae sint observanda, quod alia alio tempore parere solet. Equa enim ventrem fert duodecim menses, vacca decem, ovis et capra quinos, sus quattuor. In fetura res incredibilis est in Hispania, sed est vera, quod in Lusitania ad oceanum in ea regione, ubi est oppidum Olisipo, monte Tagro quaedam e vento concipiunt certo tempore equae, ut his gallinae quoque solent, quarum ova hypenemia appellant. Sed ex his equis qui nati pulli, non plus triennium vivunt. Quae nata sunt matura et corda, ut pure et molliter stent videndum et ne obterantur. Dicuntur agni cordi, qui post tempus nascuntur ac remanserunt in volvis intimis * * * vocant chorion, a quo cordi appellati. Tertia res est, in nutricatu quae observari oporteat, in quo quot diebus matris sugant mammam et id quo tempore et ubi; et si parum habet lactis mater, ut subiciat sub alterius mammam, qui appellantur subrumi, id est sub mamma. Antiquo enim vocabulo mamma rumis, ut opinor. Fere ad quattuor menses a mamma non diiunguntur agni, haedi tres, porci duo. E quis qui iam puri sunt ad sacrificium, ut immolentur, olim appellati sacres, quos appellat Plautus cum ait “quanti sunt porci sacres?” Sic boves altiles ad sacrificia publica saginati dicuntur opimi. Quarta pars est de sanitate, res multiplex ac necessaria, quod morbosum pecus est vitiosum, et quoniam non valet, saepe magna adficiuntur calamitate. Cuius scientiae genera duo, ut in homine, unum ad quae adhibendi medici, alterum quae ipse etiam pastor diligens mederi possit. Eius partes sunt tres. Nam animadvertendum, quae cuiusque morbi sit causa, quaeque signa earum causarum sint, et quae quemque morbum ratio curandi sequi debeat. Fere morborum causae erunt, quod laborant propter aestus aut propter frigora, nec non etiam propter nimium laborem aut contra nullam exercitationem, aut si, cum exercueris, statim sine intervallo cibum aut potionem dederis. Signa autem sunt, ut eorum qui e labore febrem habent adapertum os umido spiritu crebro et corpore calido. Curatio autem, cum hic est morbus, haec: perfunditur aqua et perunguitur oleo et vino tepefacto, et item cibo sustinetur, et inicitur aliquid, ne frigus laedat; sitienti aqua tepida datur. Si hoc genus rebus non proficitur, demittitur sanguis, maxime e capite. Item ad alios morbos aliae causae et alia signa, in omni pecore quae scripta habere oportet magistrum pecoris.

  Relinquitur nonum quod dixi, de numero, utriusque partis commune. Nam et qui parat pecus necesse est constituat numerum, quot greges et quantos sit pasturus, ne aut saltus desint aut supersint et ideo fructus dispereant. Praeterea scire oportet, in grege quot feminas habeat, quae parere possint, quot arietes, quot utriusque generis suboles, quot reiculae sint alienandae. In alimoniis, si sunt plures nati, uti quidam faciunt, sequendum ut quosdam subducas, quae res facere solet ut reliqui melius crescant.

  Vide, inquit Atticus, ne te fallat et novenae istae partes non exeant extra pecoris minoris ac maioris nomen. Quo pacto enim erunt in mulis et pastoribus novenae partes, ubi nec admissurae nec feturae observantur? In canibus enim video posse dici. Sed do etiam in hominibus posse novenarium retineri numerum, quod in hibernis habent in villis mulieres, quidam etiam in aestivis, et id pertinere putant, quo facilius ad greges pastores retineant, et puerperio familiam faciunt maiorem et rem pecuariam fructuosiorem. Sic, inquam, numerus non est ut sit ad amussim, ut non est, cum dicimus mille naves isse ad Troiam, centumirale esse iudicium Romae. Quare deme, si vis, duas res de mulis, admissuram et parturam. Vaccius, parturam? inquit, proinde ut non aliquotiens dicatur Romae peperisse mulam. Cui ego ut succinerem, subicio Magonem et Dionysium scribere, mula et equa cum conceperint, duodecimo mense parere. Quare non, si hic in Italia cum peperit mula sit portentum, adsentiri omnes terras. Neque enim hirundines et ciconiae, quae in Italia pariunt, in omnibus terris pariunt. Non scitis palmulas careotas Syrias parere in Iudaea, in Italia non posse? Sed Scrofa, Si exigere mavis sine mulorum fetura et nutricatu numerum octoginta et unum, est qui expleas duplicem istam lacunam, quod extraordinariae fructum species duae accedunt magnae, quarum una est tonsura, quod oves ac capras detondent aut uellunt; altera, quae latius patet, de lacte et caseo, quam scriptores Graeci separatim tyropoiian appellaverunt ac scripserunt de ea re permulta.

  [6] “The origin is as I have given it; the dignity, as I shall now show. Of the ancients the most illustrious were all shepherds, as appears in both Greek and Latin literature, and in the ancient poets, who call some men ‘rich in flocks,’ others ‘rich in sheep,’ others ‘rich in herds’; and they have related that on account of their costliness some sheep actually had fleeces of gold — as at Argos the one which Atreus complains that Thyestes stole from him; or as in the realm of Aeetes in Colchis, the ram in search of whose golden fleece the Argonauts of royal blood are said to have fared forth; or as among the Hesperides in Libya, from which Hercules brought from Africa to Greece golden mala, which is the ancient manner of naming goats and sheep. For the Greeks called these mela from the sound of their bleating; [7] and in fact our people give them a similar name from the same bleating, but with a different consonant (for the bleating seems to give the sound be, and not me), and they call the bleating of sheep baelare, and hence later, by the excision of a letter, as occurs in many words, balare. But if the flock had not been held in high honour among the ancients, the astronomers, in laying out the heavens, would not have called by their names the signs of the zodiac; they not only did not hesitate to give such names, but many of them begin their enumeration of the twelve signs with the names of the Ram and the Bull, placing them ahead of Apollo and Hercules. For those gods follow them, but are called the Twins. [8] And they were not content to have one-sixth of the twelve signs bear the names of domestic animals, but added Capricornus, so that one-fourth might have them. And besides this, they added of the domestic animals the she-goat, the kid, and the dog. Or are not tracts on land and sea also known by the names of animals? For instance, they named a sea Aegean from the word for goats, a mountain on the border of Syria, Taurus, a mountain in the Sabine country, Cantherius, and two straits Bosphorus (ox-ford) — the Thracian and the Cimmerian. [9] Did they not give such names to many places on land, as, for instance, the city in Greece called ‘Hippion (horse-rearing) Argos’? And, finally, is not Italy named from vituli (bullocks), as Piso states? Further, does not everyone agree that the Roman people is sprung from shepherds? Is there anyone who does not know that Faustulus, the foster-father who reared Romulus and Remus, was a shepherd? Will not the fact that they chose exactly the Parilia as the time to found a city demonstrate that they were themselves shepherds? Is not the same thing proved by the following facts: that up to this day a fine is assessed after the ancient fashion in oxen and sheep; that the oldest copper coins are marked with cattle; [10] that when the city was founded the position of walls and gates was marked out by a bull and a cow; that when the Roman people is purified by the suovetaurilia, a boar, a ram, and a bull are driven around; that many of our family names are derived from both classes, the larger and the smaller, such as Porcius, Ovinius, Caprilius from the smaller, and Equitius, Taurius, Asinius from the larger; and that the so-called cognomina [surnames] prove the same thing, as, for instance, the Annii Caprae, the Statilii Tauri, the Pomponii Vituli, and many others, derived from the names of domestic animals?

  [11] “It remains to speak of the science of animal husbandry, and our friend, Scrofa, to whom this generation presents the palm in all agricultural matters, and who is therefore better fitted, will discuss it.” When the eyes of all were turned on him Scrofa began:— “Well, there is a science of assembling and feeding cattle in such fashion as to secure the greatest returns from them; the very word for money is derived from them, for cattle are the basis of all wealth. [12] The science embraces nine divisions under three topics of three divisions each: the topic of the smaller animal
s, with its three divisions, sheep, goats, swine; the second topic, that of the larger animals, with likewise its three classes naturally separate, oxen, asses, horses. The third topic comprises animals which are kept not for the profit derived from them, but for the purpose of the above groups, or as a result of them, mules, dogs, and herdsmen. Each one of these divisions includes at least nine general subdivisions; and of these four are necessarily involved in assembling and an equal number in feeding; while one is common to both. There are, then, at the lowest 81 subdivisions, all of them important and not one insignificant. [13] First: in order to assemble a sound flock one must know one item — at what age it is profitable to get and keep each several kind. Thus, in the matter of cattle, they can be purchased at a lower price below the age of one year and beyond that of ten years, for they begin to yield a profit after the age of two or three, and do not continue to do so much beyond the age of ten years — [14] the earliest youth and extreme age of all animals being barren. The second of the first four heads is a knowledge of the proper characteristics of each species of animal, as this has a very important bearing on the profit. Thus, one buys an ox with dark rather than with white horns, a full-bodied she-goat rather than a thin one, and swine with long bodies provided the head is small. The third point of inquiry is as to the breed; it is for this reason that in Greece the asses of Arcadia are noted, and in Italy those of Reate — so much so that within my recollection an ass fetched 60,000 sesterces, and one team of four at Rome sold for 400,000. [15] The fourth topic is the law of purchase — the proper legal form to be followed in the purchase of each separate species. In order that the property of another may become mine an intermediate step is necessary, and not in all purchases is an agreement or the payment of money sufficient to effect a change of ownership; and in a purchase it is sometimes to be stipulated that the animal is sound, sometimes that it is from a sound flock, while at other times neither stipulation is made.