by Dalai Lama
There are two aspects to seeing the aggregates as unattractive. The first focuses on the body and sees that its organs, fluids, and so forth are foul. No one finds the inside of the body gorgeous, and we clean away everything that the body excretes. The second understands that since the aggregates are impermanent and are unsatisfactory by nature, the body is unattractive and our afflictive thoughts are undesirable. As such, our saṃsāric aggregates are not worth craving and clinging to, for they lack the capacity to bring us enduring well-being. This inspires us to turn our attention to creating the causes for liberation.
The aggregates being empty refutes the permanent, unitary, independent self or ātman as conceived by the non-Buddhists. Permanent here means the self is eternal and does not change from one life to the next. Unitary means not made of parts, and independent in this context means not depending on causes and conditions. Such a self or soul has a nature that is entirely different from that of the aggregates: it is forever unchanged, monolithic, all-pervasive, and completely separate from conditioned phenomena. The aggregates, in contrast, change, consist of parts, and are influenced by causes and conditions. The aggregates cannot possibly be such a self. The attribute of empty also refutes the existence of an independent creator who is unchanging, monolithic, and not affected by causes and conditions.
How does the third attribute — empty — counteract the notion of the body as attractive? Our mistaken belief that the foul body is attractive and pure involves holding the person and the aggregates to be separate when in fact they are the same nature. During the Buddha’s time, people adhered strongly to the caste system and the brahmins prided themselves on being pure because they were born from Brahmā’s mouth, while those of lower castes were born from lower parts of Brahmā’s body and thus were considered impure. Brahmins maintained strict rules of cleanliness to the extent that they did not touch the bodies of lower-caste people, eat with them, or use the same utensils. The Buddha opposed the caste system and the notion of a “pure self” that was its basis. By teaching that there is no pure, eternal, monolithic self that is separate from the aggregates, he pointed out that all saṃsāric bodies — no matter what caste people belonged to — were unattractive and impure.
Although Prāsaṅgikas agree with the above, their unique viewpoint of the third attribute is expressed in the following syllogism: The aggregates are empty because of arising dependently. This expresses the emptiness of inherent existence of phenomena. If the subject were the person, it would express the emptiness of the person. The reason — dependent arising — proves the emptiness of both the person and the aggregates because in both cases inherent existence is being negated. The reason in this syllogism could also be “because of depending on causes and conditions” or “because they depend on parts.”
4.The aggregates are selfless (nairātmya) because they lack a self-sufficient substantially existent person.
If a self-sufficient substantially existent person existed, it would be the same nature as the aggregates. When we say “I” or “my body and mind,” we have the impression that there is a self who is the owner and controller of the body and mind. This I instructs the mind to think and the body to move. Whereas we usually identify a person by seeing his body, hearing her voice, or thinking of her mind, a self-sufficient substantially existent person could be identified without cognizing any of the aggregates. The fourth attribute negates the existence of such a self.
According to Prāsaṅgikas’ unique view, a self-sufficient substantially existent self is a coarse object of negation, one that can be refuted by a conventional reliable cognizer. They assert that the fourth distorted conception is grasping all phenomena whatsoever as inherently existent, meaning they have their own intrinsic essence and exist under their own power, independent of all other factors. For Prāsaṅgikas emptiness and selflessness come to the same point.
The ignorance that grasps inherent existence is a big troublemaker. Based on it, we incorrectly consider ourselves to be self-enclosed entities, become attached to our individual well-being, and see everything in relationship to ourselves. Grasping inherent existence stimulates distorted conceptualization, which projects attractiveness and ugliness on people and things that don’t have them. As a result, we become indignant when criticized and arrogant when praised. This leads to manipulative behavior, personal anguish, societal discord, and vicious wars. It is important to understand this by examining our own experiences.
Because all phenomena are baseless — they lack an inherent nature — it is possible for the wisdom realizing the emptiness of inherent existence to overcome and dispel self-grasping ignorance, which holds phenomena to exist inherently. Seeing with wisdom that all persons and phenomena are selfless — that they lack inherent existence — is the path freeing us from saṃsāra.
In conclusion, based on not knowing the four attributes of true duḥkha, the four distorted conceptions arise in our minds one after the other. They give rise to afflictions, which instigate disturbing mental, verbal, and physical actions, which in turn leave karmic seeds on our mindstreams. Some of these karmic seeds ripen at the time of death and cause our next rebirth; others ripen in our future lives, affecting our environments, habits, and the experiences we undergo. This is the meaning of being under the control of afflictions and polluted actions, and it clearly illustrates that we are not free to experience the joy and fulfillment we seek. We must understand the four distorted conceptions well in order to overcome them, just as in ordinary warfare one has to learn about one’s enemies in order to defeat them.
The four attributes of true duḥkha build on one another. Our bodies and minds change moment by moment. This is their nature; once they arise, no further cause is needed to make them change. Knowing this contradicts the belief that they are static and unchanging.
Impermanent things are produced by causes and conditions; our aggregates are controlled by their causes — afflictions and karma — which are ultimately rooted in ignorance. Anything caused by or rooted in ignorance is unsatisfactory; this is the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning. Once we understand this, no matter how beautiful, pleasurable, and enticing things may appear, we know they are not worthy of our clinging to them.
The first two attributes center on the aggregates being dependent on causes and conditions. They lead to understanding the last two attributes that deny the existence of any kind of independent self or person. We aren’t free from these aggregates, so how could there be a permanent, unitary, independent self that is a different entity from the aggregates? We cannot prevent our bodies and minds from aging and dying, so how could there be a self-sufficient substantially existent person that controls the aggregates?
Whether we initially approach the four attributes from the viewpoint of reasoning or meditation, we must later combine the knowledge gained from both to attain a yogic direct reliable cognizer that realizes impermanence, duḥkha, emptiness, and selflessness. This mind is a mental consciousness that is a union of serenity and insight that directly realizes these four attributes.
Reflecting on the four attributes of true duḥkha makes us yearn to be free from our polluted aggregates and to attain nirvāṇa, a state of true freedom. The practice of the four establishments of mindfulness is one way to realize the four attributes of true duḥkha and to overcome the four distorted conceptions. Mindfulness of the body overcomes holding it as attractive; mindfulness of feelings overcomes seeing the aggregates as pleasurable and desirable; mindfulness of the mind counteracts grasping a permanent, unitary, independent self; and mindfulness of phenomena leads us to understand selflessness. The realization of subtle emptiness and subtle selflessness frees us from the bonds of cyclic existence.
DISTORTED CONCEPTIONS OF TRUE DUḤKHA
ATTRIBUTES OF TRUE DUḤKHA
The polluted aggregates are
1.
Believing impermanent things to be permanent
Impermanent, because they undergo continuous, momentary a
rising and disintegrating
2.
Believing unsatisfactory things to be pleasurable
Duḥkhatā, because they are under the control of afflictions and karma
3.
Believing the unattractive to be attractive
Empty, because they lack a permanent, unitary, and independent self
4.
Believing what lacks a self to have a self
Selfless, because they lack a self-sufficient substantially existent self
REFLECTION
1. Remember a situation in which you had strong animosity toward someone. Observe how you believed that person to be fixed and unchanging. It seems as if all he has ever been or done is condensed as that horrible person who harmed you.
2. Ask yourself if this is true. Is the person frozen in time like this? Or does he change depending on causes and conditions? Is there an independent person who always has been and always will be the image you currently have of him?
3. Seeing that the person is neither permanent nor independent, allow your anger to dissipate. Enjoy the feeling of being free from hurt and anger.
Four Attributes of True Origins
True origins (samudaya-satya) — afflictions and karma — are the principal causes of true duḥkha. Actions come from afflictions, especially craving and ignorance, the root of all afflictions. Buddhist tenet systems have various ideas of what ignorance is and how it relates to the view of a personal identity. These will be explained later.
A prominent example of afflictions is craving (tṛṣṇā), a strong liking for an object and unwillingness to let it go. Looking closely at our life experiences, we see that much of our suffering is due to craving — holding on to something or someone outside of ourselves as the source of happiness, security, and success. Craving creates feelings of dissatisfaction and inadequacy, so that no matter what we accomplish or possess, or who loves and appreciates us, we still feel discontent, pervaded by the longing for more and better.
The four attributes of true origins are cause, origin, strong producers, and conditions.
1.Craving and karma are the causes (hetu) of duḥkha because they are the chief causes of duḥkha.
Our suffering is not haphazard but has causes — craving and karma. Under the control of ignorance, we crave to experience pleasant feelings and crave to not experience painful ones. This leads us to act, creating karma. Craving also spurs different karmas to ripen into their results, especially during the dying process. This attribute refutes the idea that duḥkha is random or causeless, as asserted by the Materialists (Cārvāka), a philosophical school in ancient India. By rejecting the law of karma and its effects, many Materialists denied ethical responsibility and lived hedonistic lifestyles, indulging in sense pleasures with little thought of the long-term effects of their actions on themselves or others.
2.Craving and karma are origins (samudaya) of duḥkha because they repeatedly produce all of the diverse forms of duḥkha.
Afflictions and karma create not just a portion of our mental and physical misery but all of it in the past, present, and future. Understanding this dispels the idea that duḥkha comes from only one cause, such as an external deity or a primal cosmic matter. If duḥkha rested on only one cause, cooperative conditions would be unnecessary, in which case either that cause would never produce a result or it would never stop producing a result. If a sprout depended only on a seed and nothing else, the seed would continually grow because the change of seasons would not affect it at all; or it would not grow at all because the presence of warm weather, water, and fertilizer would not affect it. Duḥkha depends on the coming together of many changeable factors. It is not predestined or fated.
Seeing the diverse forms of duḥkha that sentient beings repeatedly experience under the control of afflictions and karma can be shocking at first. However, since they are conditioned phenomena, when conditions change or cease, duḥkha will similarly change or cease.
3.Craving and karma are strong producers (prabhava) because they act forcefully to produce strong duḥkha.
We tend to think that our problems come from causes outside of ourselves — an external creator or another person. When some people experience illness or accidents, they attribute it to God, who willed that event. On a more mundane level, we blame our unhappiness on other people or external circumstances. This way of thinking locks us into a victim mentality where we believe we are unable to change our experiences because they are caused by someone outside of ourselves. Understanding the third attribute dispels the notion that duḥkha arises from discordant causes — for example, the motivation of an external creator.
Afflictions and karma bring intense duḥkha in both lower and higher realms, and they forcefully keep us bound in saṃsāra. When we understand that afflictions and karma are the actual origins of our problems, we accept responsibility for our actions and our lives. We become empowered, knowing that we have the ability to change our situation and create the causes for the happiness we want. Having correctly identified the origins of our misery, we learn, reflect on, and meditate on the Dharma to counteract afflictions and purify karma. Understanding this stimulates us to dispel these origins of duḥkha.
4.Craving and karma are conditions (pratyaya) because they also act as the cooperative conditions that give rise to duḥkha.
Craving and karma are not only the primary causes of duḥkha but also the cooperative conditions that enable karma to ripen. When craving manifests in our minds, it acts like fertilizer enabling karmic seeds to ripen. Understanding that duḥkha depends on causes and conditions dispels the notion that it is fixed and unalterable and counteracts the idea that duḥkha is fundamentally permanent but temporarily fleeting — that is, thinking our unsatisfactory state cannot be overcome even though there are temporary times of reprieve. When the causes and conditions are eliminated, the resultant unsatisfactory and suffering experiences will also cease. Knowing this brings resilience to our Dharma practice.
Contemplating these four attributes strengthens our determination to abandon true origins.
DISTORTED CONCEPTIONS OF TRUE ORIGINS
ATTRIBUTES OF TRUE ORIGINS
Afflictions (especially craving) and karma are
1.
Believing that duḥkha is random or causeless (Cārvāka)
Causes of duḥkha, because they are the chief causes of duḥkha
2.
Believing that duḥkha comes from only one cause
Origins, because they repeatedly produce all the diverse forms of duḥkha
3.
Believing that duḥkha arises from discordant causes, such as an external creator (Vaiśeṣika)
Strong producers, because they act forcefully to produce strong duḥkha
4.
Believing that duḥkha is fundamentally permanent but temporarily fleeting (Nirgrantha)
Conditions, because they act as cooperative conditions that give rise to duḥkha
REFLECTION
1. Examine the role of craving in your life. What do you crave? Do these things actually satisfy you when you get them?
2. Does craving come from outside yourself? Is it from a creator, another person, the object you crave? How is craving related to ignorance?
3. What do you do under the influence of craving? What are the results of these actions?
4. Make a strong determination to overcome ignorance and craving by practicing the path.
Four Attributes of True Cessations
True cessations (nirodha-satya) include the cessations of various levels of afflictions that are actualized as we progress through the paths to arhatship and full awakening. Prāsaṅgikas add to this that a true cessation is the purified ultimate nature of the mind that has removed that level of afflictions.
An arhat’s true cessation of all afflictions and karma causing saṃsāric rebirth is taken as the example. This true cessation in the continuum of an arhat is the cessation of innate (sa
haja) afflictions that have existed since beginningless time and acquired (parikalpita) afflictions that were learned from incorrect philosophies.
Prāsaṅgikas assert that the true cessations of the coarse four truths are not actual true cessations because eliminating the ignorance grasping a self-sufficient substantially existent person does not eradicate true duḥkha and its origins, although it will temporarily stop the manifest coarse afflictions explained in the two Knowledges. They also assert that a buddha’s true cessation is also the cessation of the cognitive obscurations that prevent full awakening.
The four attributes of true cessation address concerns that you may have. If you believe that afflictions exist inherently in sentient beings, so that a state of final peace is impossible, reflect on the first attribute. If you wonder if heaven is better than nirvāṇa, contemplate the second attribute. If you think that nirvāṇa isn’t total freedom, reflect on the third attribute. And if you wonder if it’s possible for nirvāṇa to deteriorate, contemplate the fourth attribute.
The four attributes of true cessation are cessation, peace, magnificence, and definite emergence (freedom).
1.Nirvāṇa is the cessation of duḥkha (nirodha) because it is a state in which the origins of duḥkha have been abandoned, and it thus ensures that duḥkha will no longer arise.
Thinking that afflictions are an inherent part of sentient beings, some people believe that trying to eliminate them is futile. They do not try to remedy their situation and consequently continue to be reborn in cyclic existence. Understanding that attaining true cessations is possible by eliminating afflictions and karma dispels the misconception that liberation does not exist, immediately freeing us from a defeatist, and often cynical, attitude.