by Rob Harper
Many rivers also cut across the area. The most strategically significant were the Loire, Sèvre-Nantaise, Layon, Grand Lay and Petit Lay. The Sèvre-Nantaise cut across the region in a south-easterly direction from Nantes and for long stretches was a formidable and well-wooded barrier. Bridges, such as Pont-Charron and Pont-Charrault on the Lay, Pont-Barré on the Layon, and Les Ponts-de-Cé on the Loire, all became hotly contested.
The Vendée-Militaire.
The largely flat coastal plain was known as the Marais and was distinguished by vast salt marshes towards Les Sables d’Olonne and Noirmoutier, with distinctive raised causeways cut up by man-made waterways that were difficult to negotiate at all times of the year. Bouin, a town on the mainland east of Noirmoutier, formed an island within these marshes.
The Bocage (often distinguished between the Haut-Bocage, the more elevated eastern half, and the Bas-Bocage to the west) was characterised by high-hedged small fields and deep holloways in an area of rolling hills and wooded river valleys. The Mauges, although less hilly, was otherwise not dissimilar.
The farms and town houses were generally modest in size and built in a dull sandy-brown stone, with low-pitched roofs topped with red clay pantiles (except in the Marais where single-storey thatched cottages were common). The many isolated farms formed small fortresses surrounded by high-hedged fields, each a challenging obstacle for republican troops. There were few large châteaux and the influence of Catholicism was evident in the many churches, chapels and wayside crosses.
Chapter 2
‘Patriots, Robbers and Cowards’: The
Republican Armies in the Vendée Rising
To appreciate the nature of the War it is important to understand the organisation and quality of the opposing forces.
The War in the Vendée became the responsibility of the Army of the La Rochelle Coast and part of the Army of the Brest Coast. These armies were formed from the Army of the Reserve in April 1793. In October they were merged, with the Army of Mayence, into a new Army of the West. North of the Loire, contingents from the Army of the Cherbourg Coast also became involved.
For most of the period these armies operated in independent columns, often as divisions of a few thousand men. At least until the summer these divisions had an ad-hoc structure and included a handful of cavalry and some cannon.
The part of the Army of the Brest Coast involved in the War managed to retain a stable command structure until October, while the generals of the Army of the La Rochelle Coast went through a succession of appointments, dismissals and executions. The arrival of the Army of Mayence was meant to help end the war quickly but only heightened political tension.
Before the Revolution the French army was essentially one of volunteers, but the rank and file were generally from the worst elements of society. By late 1790 they lacked 30,000 men and, in time of war, if recruits were not volunteering in sufficient numbers, the government would resort to the use of the unpopular milice: forced recruitment through the drawing of lots.1
The Creation of a National Guard
At the beginning of the Revolution there was a rush to establish a National Guard to combat fears of an aristocratic backlash. Enlistment was voluntary but was not open to the poorer classes. On paper the National Guard seemed a formidable body of troops and in mid-1790 totalled 2,571,700 across France.2 Most of the national guards in and around the Vendée-Militaire became embroiled in the conflict.
The Volunteers of 1791
There were numerous calls for volunteers between June 1791 and August 1793, broadly categorised as the Volunteers of 1791, 1792 and 1793. The following is a brief overview.
In January 1791, with the regular army lacking over 50,000 men, a reserve force of 300,000 volunteers was created from the existing National Guard, to be enlisted for one campaign only in time of war. They were activated in June 1791, after the royal family attempted to flee France, and were better paid than their regular counterparts. They were considered to be of good quality and patriotic.
Meanwhile, over sixty per cent of the officer corps in the regular army left France during 1791-2, heightening suspicion over the loyalty of the regulars.
The Volunteers of 1792
There were many recruitment drives in 1792:
• In January a levy of voluntary enlistment into existing line regiments was ordered.
• On the declaration of war in April all existing volunteer battalions were increased from 571 to 800 men and a further thirty-one battalions were raised: still only from tax paying citizens.
• On 31 May fifty-four ‘Free Companies’ (compagnies-franches) were levied.
• In June every canton in France was ordered to send five national guardsmen to a camp near Paris to take part in the annual celebration of the 14th of July and protect the area while troops were rushed to the frontiers. Known as fédérés they were formed into eighteen battalions and some later fought in the Vendée.
• Also in June an auxiliary reserve of 100,000 men was levied (75,000 for the army, 25,000 for the navy). These had been recruited in June 1791, paid a retainer and remained at home, but could be called out for up to a six month period if required.3
• In July, with the country ‘in danger’, a further levy brought existing volunteer and regular battalions up to strength and created forty-two new volunteer battalions. Any citizen could now join up. These troops would only have to serve for one campaign (although 50,000 sent to line regiments signed on for three years).
• In July a levy of chasseurs and grenadiers was taken from existing national guards battalions for the Army of the Centre.
• In August a further levy of 30,000 from the Departments around Paris was instigated.
The ‘Volunteers of 1792’, as many of these became known, were in general considered poorer in quality than those of 1791, although evidence from Seine-et-Marne shows little demographic difference between the recruits of 1791 and 1792.4
By the end of 1792 the regulars and volunteers were at last paid the same.
The Levies of 1793
With the onset of 1793 vast numbers of volunteers completed their service and left the army, but the Republic needed troops quickly:
• In February 1793 the National Convention ordered the conscription of 300,000 men by drawing lots, sparking the Vendée Rising.
• On 27 April, Departments were asked to carry out a further levy of troops to fight in the Vendée. This helped raise the Orléans battalions.
• On 24 June an urgent voluntary levy to race to the defence of Nantes was instigated.
• In August 1793, mass conscription was ordered. All single able-bodied men aged between 18 and 25 were immediately called up. Many became embroiled in battles in the Vendée.
The Republic Troops in the Vendée Rising
The scale of the Vendée Rising took the Republic completely by surprise and by late March they were frantically organising divisions in attempts to suppress the revolt.
The year 1793 was one of experimentation, as demonstrated in the many unit types. These troops needed to be equipped, clothed and fed, all of which was an immense challenge and none of which was necessarily successful.
In the Vendée there were frequent appeals for shoes, claims that troops were half-starved, nearly naked and poorly armed, and troops were being armed with short pikes due to a lack of muskets, particularly amongst the levy battalions. On 30 March, Generals Berruyer and La Bourdonnaye reported that of their 18,500 men, 7-8,000 lacked fusils.5
As a further example, on 25 August the 2,404 men of General Joly’s 1st Brigade of the Army of the La Rochelle Coast lacked 800 chemises (shirts), 343 pairs of gaiters, 363 pairs of shoes, 500 bonnets-de-police (cloth caps) and 386 pantalons. The lack of reference to bicornes in any of his returns may imply that his men were wearing bonnets-de-police in their place.6
In June the representatives characterised the republican troops in Niort as follows: old soldiers of the line who were well-armed but badly clothed;
volunteers who were badly armed, badly clothed and undisciplined; and requisitioned national guards who were badly armed, badly dressed, undisciplined and with many deserting.7 Five hundred of these latter had been imprisoned.8
Having made an inspection of the Army of the La Rochelle Coast in late May, Ronsin reported only 10,000 of 28,000 men in a state to fight, and Biron told the Ministry of War that the Paris battalions in Niort were refusing to fight without their cannon.9 In September, General Tuncq remarked that the often-defeated army had only been created ‘to furnish the rebels with cannon, arms, supplies and munitions’.10 Representative Carrier’s report of 12 November follows the same theme:11
‘I found in the Saumur column a crowd of robbers and cowards, who furnished every kind of communication to the brigands of the Vendée to such a degree that when the latter were in any need they said “Let us march on Saumur and we shall get what we want”…There are few patriots and few brave men among them…The Luçon column is composed of some good battalions, but there are some who do not hear the sound of battle without alarm. There are brave soldiers in the Châtillon column but many are also cowards!’
Insubordination was rife among many volunteer battalions, notably those from the Paris Sections. Add to that the interference from the representatives of the people and commissaires and you begin to appreciate why the revolt spiralled out of control. It was only after the capture of Saumur in June that the Convention really started to take the Rising seriously. However, in the summer, sans-culotte generals such as Rossignol, L’Échélle, Santerre and Muller were promoted beyond their ability and veteran officers such as Kléber or Canclaux treated with suspicion.
The troops would be trained according to the Regulations of 1791 and would become familiar with deploying in line, echelon, square and column of attack. When deploying in defence the infantry would generally try to form up in two parallel lines, one behind the other, with a reserve of infantry, and cavalry on the flanks or also in reserve. Artillery was generally split up along the front line, with some retained in an artillery park or reserve.
Patriotic civilians were also involved in defending their towns and villages and small numbers of customs officials, naval and river personnel also became involved.
The National Guard
Many towns in the region had units of national guards ranging from a few dozen to thousands for a city like Nantes. In turbulent regions like the Vendée Militaire there was difficulty recruiting to the National Guard, particularly in the rural areas. If Nantes followed the normal pattern, their national guard would have been organised into battalions of 500 men (including a pair of 4pdr guns).12
The national guard wore what became the standard regulation uniform for the later revolutionary period, although there was some variation between units and many were in reality poorly armed and in civilian dress so on occasion were mistaken for rebels. Their primary role was to defend their locality or quell localised troubles and the War forced many into battle.
Numerous small cavalry units also frequently appear in army returns.
Gendarme Divisions
Two mixed units known as the 35th and 36th Divisions Gendarmerie, of around 500 and 800 men respectively, performed well in several battles, and elements of other Gendarmerie ‘Divisions’ were also involved. The 36th Division, famously commanded by Rossignol, was formed from men who had stormed the Bastille and proudly bore the name Vanqueurs de la Bastille. Two companies from the Grenadiers of the Convention linked with them before marching to the Vendée, which accounts for their greater strength.
Gendarme Cavalry
Local mounted units of gendarmes formed improvised bodies of cavalry and regularly feature in battles in the Vendée. They generally performed very badly and often refused to charge.
The Regular Infantry
The small numbers of regulars deployed in this War were supposedly the best trained troops, although their depleted ranks were filled with raw recruits just like any volunteer battalion. They were divided into line regiments and light (chasseur) battalions.
Most line regiments wore the regulation white uniform (although a few wore habits (jackets) of sky blue or red) and were formed into battalions of eight fusilier companies and one of grenadiers; the grenadiers often detached into ad-hoc columns of mixed arms. ‘Tirailleurs’ were formed by extracting small numbers of men from each company specifically trained in sharpshooting and skirmishing. Most regular battalions in the Vendée were chronically understrength.
According to Bittard-de-Portes, rumours spread in republican ranks that the rebels would spare line troops and only targeted national guards. The republicans in Nantes, therefore, dressed the 34th Line like national guards.13
Chasseur battalions were formed into eight chasseur companies and one of carabiniers, although in the Vendée the regular chasseur units largely operated as detached companies.
The Convention was defended by a battalion formed in 1792 commonly known as the Grenadiers of the Convention. They were formed into a battalion of four companies totalling 400 men and were recruited from across the army. Highly regarded, they were in the Vendée from April 1793.
Line Cavalry
Line regiments in the Vendée, several formed by merging volunteer cavalry units, included the 7th, 8th, 9th and 11th Hussars,14 several understrength regiments of chasseurs (7th, 12th, 13th, 13th bis, 14th, 24th and small detachments of the 2nd, 8th and 10th), and the 16th and 19th Dragoon. Barely any heavy cavalry fought in the region.
Volunteers
The vast majority of troops were volunteer battalions named after their Department of origin. They generally wore a uniform based on that of the national guards and were formed into eight companies: seven of fusiliers and one of grenadiers. As with the line regiments the grenadiers were often detached.
Volunteer Chasseurs
These units were dressed in a wide array of uniforms, mostly with green or blue coats but varying coloured facings, and often only one or two companies strong. They bore titles such as Chasseurs-du-Midi and many such units fought in the region.
Beysser’s Volunteer Cavalry
Formed by Beysser on 7 March 1793 as the 21st Chasseurs, on 20 April they totalled 200 cavalry, including part of his former regiment the ‘Dragons de Lorient’. Both units were dressed in scarlet jackets with black lapels, collar and turnbacks (all piped-red); they were in Nantes on 25 June and were later redesignated the 15th Chasseurs.15 They totalled 225 men in September.
The Légions
A number of volunteer units were formed into Légions: a mixture of light infantry, cavalry and artillery.16 Those involved in the Vendée were:
Légion-de-la-Fraternité
Formerly the Légion-Germanique they were renamed the Légion-de-la-Fraternité in May 1793 after a purge of ‘suspect’ officers.
When formed in 1792 it comprised four squadrons of light-cuirassiers (cuirassiers-legérs) totalling 500 men; four squadrons of pikemen (piconniers) and dragoons, totalling 150 pikemen and 350 dragoons; two battalions of chasseurs-à-pied, each of four companies of 120 men; one battalion of arquebusiers totalling 480 men (200 armed with arquebuses); and a company of artillery totalling 158 men. About 1,000 served in the Vendée under Colonel Beffroy, including 122 cuirassiers, and on their arrival only 600 were considered fit for immediate action, the rest being without arms or uniforms.17
It was commonly believed that a number of the Swiss Guard, who had escaped the massacre at the storming of the Tuileries Palace, ended up in this Légion, only to desert to the rebels and form the famous Swiss Company.18
The light-cuirassiers wore buff jackets and highly unusual armour, comprising a helmet that protected the head and neck, metal scales protecting the throat, and iron armour covering the arms, thighs, chest and back. The horses may have had chainmail coats.19
The pikemen and dragoons were dressed in green jackets with tarleton helmets and tricolor plumes; red lapels; red or white turnbacks; white collar and shoulde
r straps (the latter piped-red); and sky blue cuffs with red cuffflaps. The saddle cloth was dark-green edged red. The chasseurs are shown in a similar uniform but with short light-infantry gaiters. The arquebusiers seem to have been differentiated by black lapels and collar and the artillery are shown in a dark blue uniform with red epaulettes and white-piped black collar.
On 26 June the cavalry became the 24th Chasseurs and, in August, the 11th Hussars (at which point the infantry became the 22nd Chasseurs-à-Pied).20 General Tuncq remarked that the 11th Hussars were dressed in ‘colours confused with those of the brigands’, implying they were very badly clothed.21
Légion-du-Nord
Created in May 1792, this légion fought on the northern frontier. They arrived in the Vendée in mid-June 1793 when they comprised two battalions of chasseurs-à-pied (1,130 men); four squadrons of chasseurs-à-cheval (365 men); and two 8pdr cannon and four caissons (although soon increased to eight cannon described as horse artillery).22 The infantry were down to 267 men on 27 September.23
Both the infantry and cavalry wore sky blue uniforms with the collar, fringeless epaulettes, pointed cuffs and piping to their boots all in green. They wore a white-over-green plume on an unusual Henry IV style hat. The infantry wore a sword hung from a waist belt. The cavalry are shown on a sheepskin saddlecloth with a sky blue dog’s-tooth fringe.