by Tulsidas
Sarasvati: ‘Watery’. In the Vedas, Sarasvati is primarily a river, as sacred as the Ganga is today. Though now lost, it was the third stream that met the Ganga and the Jamuna at their confluence at Prayag. Sarasvati was also a deity, the personification of the river, and as a river goddess she was the bestower of fertility and wealth. In the Brahmanas and the Mahabharata, she is recognized as Vach, the goddess of speech and eloquence. In later times, she is the goddess of learning, inventor of the Sanskrit language and the Devanagari script, and patron of the arts and sciences. She is also the wife of Brahma. She is represented as a beautiful and graceful young woman, white in colour, wearing a crescent on her brow. She is often shown as holding the vina in her hands. Her steed is the swan. In her form as the goddess of speech and eloquence, she is known as Bharati, ‘articulate’; Brahmi or Brahmani, ‘Brahma’s consort’; Gira, ‘speech’; Sharada, ‘one who bears a vina’; Vani or Bani, literally ‘sound, speech, language, voice’. As the consort of Brahma (Vidhatra), she is known as Vidhatri.
Sarju; Sarayu: A sacred river, that flows past Ram’s city of Avadh; it is believed to rise from the sacred Manas lake.
Sati: A daughter of Daksh, and Shiv’s first wife; she killed herself because of her father’s anger against Shiv. She was subsequently reincarnated as the goddess Parvati, the daughter of Himvat and Maina.
Savan: The fifth month of the Hindu calendar, corresponding to July–August.
ser: A measure of weight, roughly equivalent to a kilogram.
Shachi: Indra’s consort.
Shakti: Cosmic energy; it denotes the energy or active power of a deity personified as his consort, as Parvati of Shiv, Lakshmi of Vishnu, Sarasvati of Brahma, etc.
Shatanand: Janak’s guru and family priest.
Shatrughna: ‘Foe-destroyer’; he is Lakshman’s twin and the youngest of Ram’s three brothers. He is also called Ripusudan, Ripuhan, ‘destroyer of enemies; and Ripudaman or Ripudavan, ‘subduer of enemies’.
shehnai: A wind instrument, somewhat like a clarinet; its sound is considered auspicious and it is especially played at weddings.
Shesh; Sheshnag: Shesh, or Sheshnag, is the king of the Nagas or the serpent race. His kingdom is Patal, abode of the Nagas. He is represented as a serpent with a thousand heads; his coils form the couch upon which Vishnu lies, and his thousand hoods the canopy which shelter him whilst he sleeps during the intervals of creation. He sometimes bears the entire world upon one of his heads. He is also called Anant, ‘the endless’, and is regarded as the symbol of eternity.
Shibi: Shibi was a pious and generous king, famed for his large-heartedness and his upholding of dharma. One day the gods decided to put him to the test. Agni took on the form of a dove, and Indra that of a hawk, and as the king sat in court one morning, the dove flew into his lap and nestled there. The hawk followed and claimed the dove as its rightful prey. The king refused to give up the dove, since it had sought shelter with him, but he also realized the legitimacy of the hawk’s demand. He offered the hawk anything he wanted in place of the dove, but the hawk would be satisfied with nothing except a piece of the king’s own flesh, equal in weight to the dove. So the king had a pair of scales brought, and placing the dove on one side, he began hacking off pieces of his own flesh, which he put on the other side. But no matter how much of his own flesh he cut off, the dove was always heavier. At last, he climbed on to the scales himself and would have cut off his own head, but the gods intervened, and Agni and Indra, appearing in their own forms, acknowledged his generosity and made him whole again.
Shiv: Auspicious, propitious, fortunate; the Destroyer, the great and powerful third deity in the Hindu triad; he is described as the destructive power, but his powers and attributes are much wider. As the great god of dissolution, he is called Rudra or Mahakal; but in Hindu philosophy, dissolution is coupled with regeneration, so as Shiv or Shankar, he is the reproductive power that perpetually restores that which has been destroyed. He is thus also called Ishvar, and Mahadev, ‘the great god’. As the restorer, he is worshipped in the form of a linga or phallus, or as the linga combined with a yoni, the female reproductive organ representative of his Shakti, or female energy. He is also the supreme ascetic, the epitome of penance and abstract meditation through which unlimited powers are acquired, the highest spiritual knowledge is gained, and union with the Supreme Absolute achieved. In this form he is represented as a naked ascetic, with matted hair, his body smeared with ashes. He is also the lord of goblins and ghosts, and in this form he wears serpents wound around his neck and a necklace of skulls. He is a handsome man, fair-complexioned, with five faces and four arms, and is usually represented sitting upon a tiger skin in profound meditation. He has a third eye in the middle of his forehead, and surmounted by the crescent moon. His third eye, if opened, has great destructive power—it reduced Kamdev, the god of love, to ashes, and periodically destroys creation in the cycle of destruction and regeneration. His matted locks are coiled upon his head, and within it is held the River Ganga, which he caught and contained as she descended from heaven upon earth (and because of which he is called Gangadhar, ‘he who holds the Ganga’). He is often attired in the skin of a tiger, a deer, or an elephant. In his four hands he carries a deer, the bow Ajagav, a damru (small hour-glass–shaped drum) or the Khatwang (a club with a skull at the end), or a cord for binding offenders. He is usually accompanied by his bull, Nandi. His consort is the goddess Parvati. As lord of all creation, he is called Akhileshvar, and as lord of the universe he is called Vishvanath and Jagadish; as the Destroyer, he is also called Har. As lord of Mt Kailash, he is known as Girinath and Girish, ‘lord of the mountain’. The city of Kashi is sacred to him; thus he is also called Kashinath, ‘lord of Kashi’. As regent of the north-east quarter, he is called Ish or Ishan. For his action of reducing Kamdev, the god of love to ashes, he is known as Anangarati, ‘enemy of Anang (Kamdev)’; Kamari, ‘the foe or conqueror of Kam’; Kamripu, ‘the foe of Kam’. In his androgynous form he is known as Ardhanarishvar, ‘the god who is half a woman’. He has a bull (brish) on his banner (ketu), and is therefore also known as Brishketu. When vish or poison was thrown up amongst the treasures retrieved at the churning of the ocean, Shiv swallowed it and held it safely in his throat, which turned blue as a result; from this he is called Nilkanth, ‘blue-throated’ (See ocean, churning of). As the destroyer of the demon known as Tripurasur, he is also called Purari and Tripurari. An alternative explanation is that he destroyed the triple city known as Tripur, which belonged to a trio of demons collectively called Tripurasur. Since he bears the crescent moon on his brow, he is also called Shashibhushan, ‘one who has the moon as his ornament’ and Chandramauli, ‘the moon-crested one’. For the garland of skulls that he wears around his neck, he is known as Kapali, ‘the one who wears a necklace of skulls’. He is also known as Ashutosh, ‘he who is quickly pleased’; Bhav, ‘existence’; Shambhu, ‘one who causes happiness’; Shankar, ‘one who causes tranquillity’ or ‘auspicious’; Mahesh or Mahadev, ‘the great god’; Sarv, ‘complete, entire, universal’; Sadashiv, ‘always happy or prosperous’.
shivaling: A phallic representation of Shiv.
Shringber; Shringberpur: The town of Shringber, it lay on the left bank of the Ganga. It was on the border of Koshal with Bhil country. The area around was inhabited by the Nishad tribe; their chief was Guha. The town has been identified with modern Singraur.
Shringi: ‘The deer-horned’; a hermit, and son of the sage Vibhandaka. Shringi or Rishyashringa as he was called, performed the fire-sacrifice that resulted in the birth of Ram and his brothers. One version of his story says that his mother was a doe, and he was therefore born with antlers; another version says that his mother was the apsara, Urvashi, who abandoned her infant son and his father, her lover, after the child’s birth. Rishyashringa was brought up by his father in the forest, in complete isolation from all other human beings. He was endowed with magical and mystical powers. Once, when the kingdom of Anga was
struck by intense drought, its king, Lomapad, was told that he must hold a sacrifice conducted by a priest who was perfectly chaste. The only such priest that could be found was Rishyashringa, who had grown up with no knowledge of women at all. He was persuaded to come to Anga and perform the sacrifice, which successfully ended the drought in Anga. Rishyashringa then married Shanta, the daughter of Lomapad. (Shanta was actually the adopted daughter of Lomapad; her real father was King Dasharath.)
Shrutakirti: Sita’s cousin, the younger daughter of Janak’s younger brother Kushadhvaj (Kushaketu); she was married to Shatrughna.
Shudra: The fourth, and lowest, of the four castes of Hinduism. This is the servile class, whose duty it was to serve the three higher castes.
Shuk; Shukdev: An eminent rishi, he was the son of Vyas and the main narrator of the Bhagavat Purana.
Shvapach: Literally, ‘one who eats dog-meat’, and thus refers to one belonging to the lowest, most degraded caste.
Siddha: ‘Accomplished’, a semi-divine being, of great purity and holiness, and said to be specially characterized by the eight siddhis or supernatural faculties, which he acquires by the performance of intense austerities or certain mystical rites or processes. The Siddhas, together with the Munis, and other holy and accomplished beings, inhabit the Bhuvarlok or middle region between the earth and the sun. The term ‘Siddha’ is also used for a great sage or ascetic who has attained the eight siddhis, usually through intense austerities and yogic practice.
Siddhi; siddhi: Success or accomplishment personified; one of Ganesh’s wives. In northern Indian tradition, Ganesh’s two consorts are Siddhi (Success) and Buddhi (Wisdom). In one recounting, they are said to have been born of Brahma’s mind, who then offered them to Ganesh as his brides; in another they are regarded as having been summoned by Ganesh himself, and then offered to him by Brahma. Buddhi is also sometimes called Riddhi—she is spiritual success, as opposed to the material success that is her sister Siddhi. In the plural, the siddhis are supernatural faculties. They are usually stated to be eight in number. They are: (i) aṇima, the faculty of making oneself infinitesimally small; (ii) mahima, the faculty of making oneself infinitely great; (iii) laghima, the faculty of becoming infinitely light; (iv) garima, the faculty of becoming infinitely heavy; (v) prapti, the faculty of obtaining whatever one wishes; (vi) prakamya, the faculty of doing whatever one wishes; (vii) ishitva, the power of absolute supremacy; (viii) vashitva, the power of absolute subjugation.
sindur: Vermilion; applied on the head of a woman it indicates that she is married; it is applied to the head of the bride for the first time by the bridegroom upon the completion of the wedding rites.
sinsupa: The ashok tree.
siris blossom: The flower of the tree Acacia sirissa; the flower is exceptionally fragile and delicate-looking, with pale, slender filament-like petals.
Sita: ‘A furrow’; in the Vedas, Sita is the furrow, or farming personified and is worshipped as the goddess of agriculture and fruits. In the Ramayana, she is the daughter of Janak, the king of Videha, and the wife of Ram. Remnants of old Vedic belief can still be seen in the story of her birth. It is related that one day, as King Janak was ploughing the field in preparation for a great fire-sacrifice to obtain children, there sprang from his plough a baby girl, whom he adopted. He named her ‘Sita’, which means ‘furrow’, and took her home to his palace, where she grew up as his beloved daughter. From her father, she is known as ‘Janaki’. So, from the manner of her birth, Sita is also called Avanikumari, ‘daughter of the earth’. She is also known as Vaidehi, ‘daughter of Videh, king of Videha’ or ‘princess of Videha’; and Maithili, ‘princess of Mithila’.
sixteen ways of honouring a guest: In Hindu tradition, a guest is considered equal to a god, and he is honoured by being given the following sixteen things: (i) asana, a seat; (ii) arghya, a libation of water with milk, flowers, etc.; (iii) padya, water to wash the feet; (iv) achamaniya, water to drink; (v) snaniya, water to bathe and for ablutions; (vi) gandhakshak, sandal paste and rice grains; (vii) vastra, fresh clothes; (viii) pushpa, flowers; (ix) dhupa, incense; (x) dipa, light or lamps; (xi) naivedya, food; (xii) mukhasta jal, water to rinse the mouth with; (xiii) tambula, betel leaves; (xiv) dakshina, a gift; (xv) pradakshina, circumambulation; and (xvi) nirajana, a worship with lighted lamps.
Skand: The god of war, the planet Mars, and the commander of the divine armies. He was born miraculously from the seed of Shiv, for the express purpose of destroying the Asur Tarak. It is said that Shiv cast his seed into fire, and it was afterwards received by the river Ganga. From her waters came forth Skand, in the form of a beautiful baby boy. He was found by the six Krittikas (the Pleiades), and each claimed the baby for herself, and each wanted to nurse him. In order to please them, Skand grew six heads. He is shown as riding on a peacock, with a bow in one hand and an arrow in the other. He is also known as Shanmukh, ‘one with six-faces’.
Sone: A river in central India, it is a tributary of the Ganga.
spheres, fourteen: According to Hindu scripture, the universe is divided into fourteen spheres, seven ascending and seven descending. The seven higher spheres, in ascending order, are: Bhuh, Bhuvah, Svah, Mahah, Janah, Tapah and Satyam; the lower sphere, in descending order, are: Atal, Vital, Sutal, Talatal, Mahatal, Rasatal, Patal.
states of being, four: The four states of being are: (i) jagrat or waking; (ii) svapna or sleeping/dreaming; (iii) sushupti or deep repose; and (iv) turiya or the state in which the soul has become one with the Supreme Spirit. These four feminine states are each paired with a male consort; these are: (i) vishva or creation; (ii) tejas or power; (iii) pragya or wisdom; and (iv) brahm, the universal Absolute.
Subahu: A Rakshasa. He defiled and interrupted the fire-sacrifices of the sage Vishvamitra; for this, he was killed by Ram.
Sugriv: King of the monkeys, and brother of Baali. He is also called Sukanth.
Sukarkhet: A town, identified with the town of Soron in northern India. It is located on the river Ganga, about thirty-two miles south of modern-day Ayodhya. It is an important place of pilgrimage for Hindus.
Sumantra: Dasharath’s trusted minister and charioteer.
Sumitra: One of Dasharath’s queens, the mother of the twins Lakshman and Shatrughna.
Supnakha; Surpanakha: Literally, ‘having finger-nails like winnowing fans’; a Rakshasi, Ravan’s sister.
Surasa: A goddess, the mother of the Nagas, she was asked by the gods to test Hanuman’s strength and courage as he flew across the ocean to Lanka.
Sutikshna: A hermit who lived in the Dandak forest and met Ram and Sita during their exile. He was a disciple of the sage Agastya.
Svati: The star Arcturus, as forming the fifteenth nakshatra, or lunar asterism. According to popular belief, the rain that falls under this lunar asterism is endowed with special properties including the attribute that if a drop of it falls into a seashell, it becomes a pearl. The chatak subsists only on the rain that falls during autumn, under the influence of this nakshatra.
svayamvar: The public ceremony of a young girl or princess selecting a husband of rank from an assembled gathering of suitors; this ceremony is usually restricted to the Kshatriya caste. Sometimes, a task may be set by the bride’s family for her suitors to accomplish, as in the case of Sita’s svayamvar, where the successful suitor had to string and break Shiv’s bow.
tamal: A tree found across India; it has very dark bark and white blossoms.
Tamas; Tamasa: A tributary of the Ganga.
Tara: Wife of Baali, king of the monkeys, and the mother of Angad. After Baali was killed by Ram, she was taken by Baali’s younger brother, Sugriv, as his wife.
Tarak: A Daitya, whose austerities made him formidable to the gods, and for whose destruction Shiv’s son, Skand, the god of war, was born.
Taraka: The daughter of the Yaksha, Suketu; turned into a Rakshasi by the sage Agastya, she lived in the forest at the confluence of the Ganga and the Sarju and ravaged the surrounding
land and terrorized the rishis in the forest. Vishvamitra wanted Ram to kill her, to stop her from doing further harm. But Ram was reluctant to kill a woman. So deciding to deprive her of the power to do harm, he cut off her two arms. Lakshman cut off her nose and ears. But using her magic powers, she pelted Ram and Lakshman with a shower of rocks and boulders, so that finally, at Vishvamitra’s command, Ram killed her with a single arrow. Her son was the Rakshasa Marich, who later helped Ravan in his abduction of Sita.
three afflictions or the triple fires: These are mental and physical distress, distress caused by the acts of God, and distress caused by others.
tilak: A ceremonial mark made with vermilion or sandalwood paste upon the forehead between the eyebrows upon installation to office, coronation of a king, betrothal, etc.
triveni: ‘Triple-braid’; the confluence of the three sacred rivers Ganga, Jamuna and the subterranean Sarasvati at the city of Prayag (modern Allahabad). The waters of the Jamuna are dark, and of the Ganga light. The stream of the Sarasvati is invisible.
Trijata: A Rakshasi who befriended Sita when she was Ravan’s prisoner in Lanka. She is also called Dharamagya.
Trishanku: The name given to Satyavrata, a prince of the solar dynasty, and king of Avadh. Satyavrata was a good king, but in his arrogance he decided to ascend to heaven in corporeal form. He therefore asked the sage Vasishtha to perform the sacrifice by means of which he could attain this end. Vasishtha declined to perform the ceremony, declaring that what the king wanted was impossible. Satyavrata then appealed to Vasishtha’s sons, who refused, saying that he wanted to make trouble between them and their father and, for his presumption, cursed him to become a Chandal. While in Chandal form, and having nothing to eat one day, Satyavrata killed Vasishtha’s cow, the Kamadhenu, and ate her. For these three sins, of pride, making trouble between father and sons, and killing a cow, Vasishtha gave him the name ‘Trishanku’ (from tri or ‘three’, and shanku or ‘sin’). He then turned to Vishvamitra, who agreed to perform the sacrifice and send him to heaven in his current body. The sons of Vasishtha opposed the sacrifice, for which Vishvamitra reduced them all to ashes. He then began the sacrifice, but as Trishanku ascended to heaven, Indra and the other gods opposed his entry and hurled him down to earth. Trishanku fell head first, and hung upside down in the sky, midway between the earth and heaven. It was finally agreed that that is where he should stay. He can still be seen in the sky, as the constellation Trishanku in the southern hemisphere. The saliva that dropped from his mouth is said to be the River Karamnasa, the waters of which, if touched, destroy all religious merit.