by Alexis Clark
15. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
16. Milton Record obituary for John D. Powell, December 10, 1910. Obit includes mention of John T. Powell of the 39th Regiment, USCT, MD.
17. Entry for Ray Elliott in “American Centuries: Views from New England,” Memorial Hall Museum’s online collection, www.americancenturies.mass.edu/centapp/oh/story.do?shortName=elliot1917.
18. Milton Record, October 26, 1918.
19. Equal Justice Initiative, Lynchings in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror, 2nd ed. (Montgomery, AL: Equal Justice Initiative, 2015).
20. Claudia Goldin, “Marriage Bars: Discrimination Against Married Women Workers,” Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, October 1988.
21. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
22. Elinor’s baby book, written entries by Gladys Powell, 1921.
23. “Two Parent Household: Black Family Structure in Late Nineteenth Century Boston,” Elizabeth H. Fleck, Journal of Social History 6, no. 1 (Autumn 1972): 3–31.
24. Elinor’s yearbook entry, Milton High School yearbook, 1938.
25. Milton High School yearbook, 1938, 45.
26. Lincoln School for Nurses collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, archives.nypl.org/scm/20728.
27. Chris Albert interview. May 8, 2012; Chris Albert email to Alexis Clark, August 16, 2017.
2. Frederick
1. Oppeln facts. Municipal Visitor Center, Opole, info.um.opole.pl/en/.
2. Article 231, War Guilt Clause, Treaty of Versailles. “The Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, German Reparations, and Inter-Allied War Debts,” Office of the Historian, Department of State, United States of America, history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/dawes.
3. Richard J. Evans. The Third Reich in History and Memory (London: Little Brown, 2015), 18.
4. John Simkin, “Dawes Plan,” Spartacus Educational, September 1997, spartacus-educational.com/GERdawes.htm.
5. John Simkin, “Unemployment in Nazi Germany,” Spartacus Educational, September 1997, spartacus-educational.com/GERunemployment.htm.
6. “Opole, Poland,” Jewish Gen, an affiliate of the Museum of Jewish Heritage, data.jewishgen.org/wconnect/wc.dll?jg~jgsys~community~-519973; “Opole,” Virtual Shtetl, December 2015, www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/opole/5,history.
7. Charlotte Tutsek interview, November 30, 2015.
8. Kristina Brandner interview, November 30, 2015.
9. Charlotte Tutsek interview, July 18, 2015.
10. Charlotte Tutsek interview, November 30, 2015.
11. “The German Reichsarbeitdienst, Feldgrau.com, German Armed Forces Research, 1918–1945, 1996, www.feldgrau.com/WW2-German-National-Work-Service-Reichsarbeitdienst.
12. Chris Albert interview, May 8, 2012.
13. Kristina Brandner interview, June 22, 2012; Kristina Brandner email to Alexis Clark August 16, 2017.
14. Frederic Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2003), 163–164.
3. Fighting Hitler and Jim Crow
1. Huachuca Illustrated: A Magazine of the Fort Huachuca Museum 9 (1993): 7.
2. Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns (New York: Vintage Books, 2010), 8–9.
3. Andy A. Beveridge, “Harlem’s Shifting Population,” Gotham Gazette, September 2, 2008.
4. “Harlem Riots of 1943,” Weissman Center for International Business, Baruch College, www.baruch.cuny.edu/nycdata/disasters/riots-harlem_1943.html.
5. Claudia Marie Calhoon, “Tuberculosis, Race, and the Delivery of Health Care in Harlem, 1922–1939,” Radical History Review 80 (Spring 2001): 101–119.
6. Robert C. Hayden, “Historical Overview of Poverty Among Blacks in Boston 1950–1990,” Trotter Review 17, no. 1 (September 21, 2007): 14.
7. U.S. Census Data, New York, 1940, www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/NYtab.pdf.
8. U.S. Census Data, Arizona. 1940, www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/AZtab.pdf.
9. Letter to Mabel Staupers from a nurse at P/W Camp Papago Park, Phoenix, Arizona, November 19, 1944, Moorland-Spingarn Collection, Howard University; Ralph A. Storm, Camp Florence Days (Eau Claire, Wisconsin: ECPrinting, 2006), 14.
10. Legion of Merit, Colonel Edwin N. Hardy, Headquarters, Army Services Forces, Washington D.C., Fort Huachuca Museum archives.
11. Huachuca Illustrated 9 (1993): 88–89.
12. Ibid., 7.
13. Ibid., 84.
14. Darlene Clark Hine. Black Women in White: Racial Conflict and Cooperation in the Nursing Profession 1890–1950 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), 6.
15. “History in Brief,” Spelman College official website. www.spelman.edu/about-us/history-in-brief; Hine, Black Women in White, 8.
16. Hine, Black Women in White, 8–10, 54.
17. Ibid., 6.
18. Mabel Keaton Staupers, No Time for Prejudice: A Story of the Integration of Negroes in Nursing in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1961), 97–98.
19. Ibid., 99.
20. Ibid., 99–100.
21. Hine, Black Women in White, 117–120.
22. Telegram to President Roosevelt from Mabel K. Staupers. January 6, 1945, NAACP General File, Library of Congress.
23. “James Carre Magee, Major General, U.S. Army, the Surgeon General,” Army Medical Bulletin 49 (July 1939): 1–3; Roderick M. Engert, “A Concise Biography of Major General James Carre Magee. Medical Corps, U.S. Army,” U.S. Army Medical Department, Office of Medical History, June 1964, history.amedd.army.mil/surgeongenerals/J_Magee.html.
24. Staupers, No Time for Prejudice, 102–103; Hine, Black Women in White,166; Huachuca Illustrated 9 (1993): 41.
25. Barbara Brooks Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 194.
26. Gordon R. Sullivan, The Army Nurse Corps (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993), 6; Huachuca Illustrated: A Magazine of the Fort Huachuca Museum 9 (1993): 70.
27. Letters to Walter White, NAACP General File, Camp Conditions A642, Box 11, Folder 9, Library of Congress.
28. Huachuca Illustrated 9 (1993): 84.
29. Ibid., 20, 41.
30. Ibid., 20.
31. Ibid., 34.
32. Harlan Branford and Charles Hancock interview, June 11, 2012; Matthias Reiss, “Solidarity Among ‘Fellow Sufferers’: African Americans and German Prisoners of War in the United States During World War II,” Journal of African-American History 98, no. 4 (Fall 2013): 542–543.
33. Huachuca Illustrated 9 (1993): 45.
34. Ibid., 45.
35. Ibid., 65.
36. Charissa J. Threat. Nursing Civil Rights (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2015), Appendix A: Facts About Negro Nurses and the War.
37. Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales, 196.
4. German POWs in the United States
1. “By the Numbers: The U.S. Military,” National World War II Museum, New Orleans, www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/for-students/ww2-history/ww2-by-the-numbers/us-military.html.
2. “The Pima Cotton Boom,” The Arizona Experience, arizona experience.org/remember/pima-cotton-boom; “History of Good-year,” Goodyear, www.goodyearaz.gov/about-us/demographics-growth/history-of-goodyear
3. Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America (New York: Stein & Day, 1979), 271–272; Arnold Krammer, “Japanese Prisoners of War,” Pacific Historical Review 52, no. 1 (February 1983): 70.
4. Some scholars, specifically Arnold Krammer, Michael R. Waters, Matthias Reiss, Barbara Schmitter Heister, Lewis H. Carlson, and Steve Hoza, have written in-depth about German POWs in the United States.
5. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 1–2.
6. Ralph A. Storm, Camp Florence Days (Eau Claire, Wisconsin: EC Printing, 2006), 25.
7. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 2.
8. Matthias Reiss, “Sol
idarity Among ‘Fellow Sufferers’: African Americans and German Prisoners of War in the United States During World War II,” Journal of African-American History 98, no. 4 (Fall 2013): 538.
9. There had been German prisoners of war detained in the United States during the Great War, but many of those POWs were German sailors caught by U.S. forces in Guam. The War Department designated three POW camps for them: Forts Oglethorpe and McPherson in Georgia and Fort Douglas in Utah. The exact number of German prisoners of war in the United States from the Great War wasn’t accurately calculated, because POWs were detained in the same camps as civilians of German descent who were rounded up and interned on U.S. soil during the war, but the numbers hover around 1,346. Allen Kent Powell, World War I and Utah, Utah History Encyclopedia, 1994, heritage.utah.gov/tag/fort-douglas; Leisa N. Vaughn, The Georgia Hun in the Georgia Sun: German Prisoners of War in Georgia, Georgia Southern University, Jack N. Averitt College of Graduate Studies, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, Spring 2016, 33, digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2456&context=etd.
10. Reiss, “Solidarity,” 533–534.
11. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 93–94.
12. Storm, Camp Florence Days, 37; Steven Mintz, Mexican Americans and the Great Depression (NewYork: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, 2009–2017), www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/great-depression/resources/mexican-americans-and-great-depression.
13. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 4.
14. POW registration card for Friedrich Karl Albert. July 9, 1944.
15. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 2–3.
16. Ibid., 4–5.
17. Ibid., 3.
18. Ibid., 5.
19. Steve Hoza, PW: First-Person Accounts of German Prisoners of War In Arizona (Phoenix: E6B Publications, 1995), 18, 31, 36.
20. Ibid., 11, 17, 33, 34, 36.
21. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 23.
22. Reiss, “Solidarity,” 537.
23. Ibid., 538, 545.
24. Lewis H. Carlson, We Were Each Other’s Prisoners: An Oral History of World War II American and German Prisoners of War (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 21.
25. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 25.
26. Hoza, “German POWs,” 29.
27. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 25.
28. Storm, Camp Florence Days, 21.
29. Early ADC History, Florence, Arizona Department of Corrections, corrections.az.gov/adc-history.
30. Storm, Camp Florence Days, 12; John Hernandez, “The Magma Arizona Railroad Company,” www.copperarea.com/pages/the-magma-arizona-railroad/.
31. Ibid., 38.
32. Ibid., 25.
33. Michael R. Waters, Lone Star Stalag: German Prisoners of War at Camp Hearne (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006), 22.
34. Storm, Camp Florence Days, 24.
35. Hoza, PW, 115–116.
36. Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 126, 136.
37. “Field Service Report on Visit to Prisoner of War Camp, Florence, Arizona, 26–28 April 1945 by Captain Alexander Lakes,” Office of the Provost Marshal General, Prisoner of War Special Projects Division, May 12, 1945, National Archives and Records Administration.
38. Tomas Jaehn. “Unlikely Harvesters: German Prisoners of War as Agricultural Workers in the Northwest,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 50, no. 3 (Autumn, 2000): 46–57, www.jstor.org/stable/4520253?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.
39. “Field Service Report on Visit to Prisoner of War Camp, Florence, Arizona, 26–28 April 1945 by Captain Alexander Lakes,” Office of the Provost Marshal General, Prisoner of War Special Projects Division, May 12, 1945, National Archives and Records Administration.
40. Office of the Provost Marshal General, Prisoner of War Special Projects Division, Point 6: Religious Services, National Archives and Records Administration.
41. Office of the Provost Marshal General, Prisoner of War Special Projects Division, Point 4: Education Program, National Archives and Records Administration.
42. Hoza, “German POWs,” 85.
43. Waters, Lone Star Stalag, 24.
44. Lewis H. Carlson, We Were Each Other’s Prisoners: An Oral History of World War II American and German Prisoners of War (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 22.
45. Reiss, “Solidarity,” 539.
46. Storm, Camp Florence Days, 63.
47. Ibid., 73–74.
5. Camp Florence
1. Lewis H. Carlson, We Were Each Other’s Prisoners: An Oral History of World War II American and German Prisoners of War (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 23.
2. Gwyneth Moore interview, June 10, 2013.
3. Barbara Brooks Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 196.
4. Barbara Heisler Schmitter, “Returning to America: German Prisoners of War and the American Experience,” German Studies Review 31, no. 3 (October 2008): 540.
5. Matthias Reiss, “Solidarity Among ‘Fellow Sufferers’: African Americans and German Prisoners of War in the United States During World War II,” Journal of African-American History 98, no. 4 (Fall 2013): 550.
6. Ibid., 545.
7. Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America (New York: Stein & Day, 1979), 92–93.
8. Reiss, “Solidarity,” 539.
9. Ibid., 540.
10. Ibid., 540.
11. “Attitudes of Whites Toward Sharing Facilities with Negroes,” Research Branch, Special Service, Division of Services of Supply, War Department, July 30, 1942, Library of Congress, NAACP General File, Box A650, Folder 1.
12. Ralph A. Storm, Camp Florence Days (Eau Claire, Wisconsin: ECPrinting, 2006), 34.
13. “U.S. Army Nurse Ora Hicks Oral History,” C-SPAN, August 5, 2005, www.c-span.org/video/?289838-1/us-army-nurse-ora-hicks-oral-history.
14. Dorothy Cook Jenkins interview with Alexis Clark, April 16, 2014 and November 6, 2014; “Dorothy Margaret Cook Jenkins,” The Veterans History Project, The Library of Congress, October 26, 2011, memory.loc.gov/diglib/vhp/story/loc.natlib.afc2001001.32011/.
15. Anonymous letter to Mabel Staupers, Camp Papago Park, August 1, 1944, Moorland-Spingarn Collection, Howard University.
16. Oneida Stuart interview, Veterans History Project, September 15, 1992.
17. Matthias Reiss interview, October 8, 2012.
18. Steve Hoza, PW: First-Person Accounts of German Prisoners of War in Arizona (Phoenix, AZ: E6B Publications, 1995), 59.
19. Ibid.
20. Julian Hartt, “Desert Town Protests ‘Coddling’ Nazi Prisoners,” Atlanta Constitution, March 12, 1945, 3.
21. Ibid.
22. “Report of Inspection by Major D.L. Schwieger and Captain Robert W. Mess (Office of the Provost Marshal General) of Prisoner of War Camp, Florence, and PW Branch Camps Mt. Graham and Safford, Arizona,” July 10, 1945, National Archives, College Park, MD.
23. Chris Albert interview, May 8, 2012.
24. Richard S. Sears, V-Discs: A History and Discography (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980).
25. Chris Albert interview. May 8, 2012.
26. Alexis Clark, “A Black Nurse, a German Soldier and an Unlikely World War II Romance,” New York Times, May 15, 2013, cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/05/15/a-black-nurse-a-german-soldier-and-an-unlikely-wwii-romance.
27. Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales, 196.
28. Chris Albert interview, May 8, 2012.
6. A Forbidden Romance
1. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
2. Gwyneth Moore interview, July 12, 2013.
3. “100-Year-Old Recalls Life as WWII Army Nurse,” Wounded Times, February 26, 2011. www.combatptsdwoundedtimes.org/2011/02/100-year-old-recalls-life-as-wwii-army.html
4. Barbara Brooks Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 19
5.
5. Gwyneth Moore interview, June 10, 2013.
6. Dina Felton interview, April 7, 2013.
7. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
8. Kristina Brandner email to Alexis Clark, November 1, 2014.
9. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
7. End of War
1. Chris Albert interview, June 29, 2012.
2. Steve Hoza, PW: First-Person Accounts of German Prisoners of War in Arizona (Phoenix: E68 Publications, 1995), 18.
3. Albert Deutsch, “Bias Bars Needed Nurses from Bedsides of Wounded,” PM, December 26, 1944.
4. “Army Still Is Balky On Using Negro Nurses” NAACP General File, Box A648, Folder 1 Medical Corps, Library of Congress.
5. Charissa J. Threat, “‘The Hands That Might Save Them’: Gender, Race and the Politics of Nursing in the United States during the Second World War,” Gender & History 24, no. 2 (August 2012): 456–474.
6. Mabel Keaton Staupers, No Time for Prejudice: A Story of the Integration of Negroes in Nursing in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1961), 120–121.
7. Joseph Connor, “Drafting Women,” World War II Magazine, August 6, 2016, www.historynet.com/drafting-women.htm.
8. Staupers, No Time for Prejudice, 120.
9. Ibid., 116.
10. Letter to Mabel Staupers, February 14, 1945, Moorland-Spingarn Collection, Howard University.
11. Cheryl Mullenbach, Double Victory: How African American Women Broke Race and Gender Barriers to Help Win World War II (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2013) 130.
12. Barbara Brooks Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 124.
13. Hope Taylor interview, October 24, 2014.
8. An Uncertain Future
1. Steve Hoza, PW: First-Person Accounts of German Prisoners of War in Arizona (Phoenix, AZ: E6B Publications, 1995), 87.
2. “Field Service Report on Visit to Prisoner of War Camp, Florence, Arizona, 26–28 April 1945 by Captain Alexander Lakes,” Office of the Provost Marshal General, Prisoner of War Special Projects Division, May 12, 1945, National Archives and Records Administration.
3. “Prisoner of War Censorship Report, European Theater of Operations P/W Censorship Bureau. Military Intelligence Service, Curtis J. Siats, Major, Infantry, Commanding,” February 2, 1945.