by Alexis Clark
Eisenhower, Dwight D.
Ellington, Duke
Elliott, Ray
Equal Justice Initiative
Fairfield County, Connecticut
farming, American
cotton farming
effects of World War II
end of war and continued need for POW labor
POWs as solution to labor needs
Felton, Alethea
Feuerfest (Refratechnik) (German company)
FHA mortgages
Fitzgerald, Ella
597th Field Artillery Battalion
Florence, Arizona, local residents of
See also Camp Florence (Arizona POW camp)
flu pandemic (1918)
Flying Fortresses (B-17 bombers)
Ford Foundation
Ford Ord (California)
Fort Bragg (North Carolina)
Fort Custer (Battle Creek, Michigan)
Fort Devens (Massachusetts)
Fort Huachuca (southern Arizona)
black military personnel at
black nurses’ basic training at
black nurses’ living conditions
Elinor at
Hospital One
Mountain View (officers’ club)
racial discrimination and segregated facilities
relationship between black enlisted men and white officers
Fort Robinson (Arkansas)
France
black regiments and World War I service
German POWs and postwar labor
Freedmen’s Hospital School of Nursing (Washington, D.C.)
Friedrich, Caspar David
Geneva Convention
Article
on return of POWS to their homelands
on treatment of POWs
Georg-August University (Göttingen, Germany)
German anti-Semitism
Göttingen
Nuremberg laws
Oppeln
German prisoners of war (POWs) in US camps
camaraderie with American guards
captured in northern Africa
clothing/uniforms
cotton farming work
days-long train journeys to camps
differential treatment
escape attempts
expressions of condolence for FDR’s death
fraternization with local women
fulfillment of American labor needs
and Geneva Convention
hard-core Nazis/German loyalists
interactions and camaraderie with African Americans
language barriers and shortage of translators
opinions of American racial hierarchies and discrimination
opinions of Hitler and Nazism
postwar labor battalions in England and France
postwar wishes to stay in the U.S.
racism against black nurses
routines and schedules
transatlantic voyages to U.S.
treatment of
U.S.-Britain agreement
war’s end and return to Europe
See also Camp Florence (Arizona POW camp); prisoners of war (POW) camps
Germany
Albert family home in Oppeln
Elinor and Frederick’s move to
German nationalism
Göttingen
Hitler’s rise
Jewish population
Weimar Republic
World War I and economic aftermath
See also Germany, Nazi (Hitler’s Third Reich); Germany, postwar
Germany, Nazi (Hitler’s Third Reich)
armed forces (Wehrmacht)
and “degenerate art”
Hitler Youth
Hitler’s occupation of Poland
Luftwaffe (aerial warfare branch)
Nuremberg laws
POWs’ attitudes toward Hitler and
surrender and end of war
Waffen SS
Germany, postwar
African Americans and Germans in
American occupation
civilian deaths
concentration camps
devastation
Elinor and Frederick’s residence in Göttingen
German immigration to the U.S.
mixed-race children (“brown babies” or mischlingskinder)
POWs’ return to
racial discrimination against black soldiers
racial prejudice against mixed-race couples
G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (Tomblin)
Gillespie, Dizzy
Girl Scouts of America
Göttingen, Germany
Elinor and Frederick’s residence at the Albert home
Jews of
right-wing ideas and racism
Grammer, Mabel
Grammer, Oscar
Great Britain
black nurses assigned to English hospitals
German POWs and postwar labor
POW agreement with U.S.
Great Depression
Great German Art Exhibition
Great Migration
Hackbarth, Karl-Heinz
Harlem, New York
race riots (1943)
tuberculosis epidemic
Harlem Renaissance
Haus, Fritz
Hayden, Carl
Hicks, Ora
Hitler, Adolf
the Alberts and
and “degenerate art,”
occupation of Poland
POWs’ attitudes toward
rise of
suicide
See also Germany, Nazi (Hitler’s Third Reich)
Hitler Youth
Holiday, Billie
Hoover, J. Edgar
Horne, Lena
Hotel Braddock (Harlem)
House Military Affairs Committee
Howard University (Washington, D.C.)
Immigration and Naturalization Act (1924)
immigration to the U.S., postwar German
International Red Cross
interracial (mixed-race) couples
Elinor and Frederick’s challenges as mixed-race family
Gallup poll of white Americans’ opinions on (1958)
interracial marriage laws
landlords, mortgages, and housing restrictions
mixed-race children in the U.S.
obtaining life insurance
in postwar occupied Germany
prejudicial treatment in postwar America
prejudicial treatment in postwar Germany
school enrollment and segregation in Morton, Pennsylvania
Village Creek community in South Norwalk, Connecticut
Italian prisoners of war (POWs)
jazz music
in the Albert family household
black musicians
Chris Albert’s career
Frederick’s passion for
Hitler’s opinion of
V-Discs and U.S. military personnel
Jenkins, Dorothy
Jim Crow system. See racial discrimination and segregation (Jim Crow laws)
Johnson, Joe
Kentucky
King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Kirk, Norman T.
labor unions
Lammersdorf, Hans
Lincoln School for Nurses (Bronx, New York)
Little, Robert
Littlefield, Samuel
Louis, Joe
Louisville, Kentucky
lynchings
Magee, James
Magma-Arizona Railroad Company
Mahoney, Mary Eliza
March on Washington
“marriage bars”
Massachusetts Historical Commission
May, Andrew J.
May Bill
Media, Pennsylvania
Miller Stuart, Oneida
Milton, Massachusetts
Gladys Powell’s community work
history
i
ntegrated Girl Scouting
Littlefield/Powell house on Granite Place
Powell family
Powell’s Emerson Road house
racial tolerance and progressiveness
Milton High School
Milton Record
mischlingskinder (“brown babies”)
mixed-race children
(“brown babies” or mischlingskinder) in post-occupation Germany
school enrollment and segregation in Morton, Pennsylvania
Stephen Albert’s experiences
Mögel, Friedrich
Montgomery, Bernard
Moore, Gwyneth Blessitt
assistance with Frederick’s immigration to the U.S.
and Elinor and Frederick’s relationship at Camp Florence
experiences of discrimination and treatment at Camp Florence
on German POWs’ kindness toward black nurses
postwar
Morton School Board (Morton, Pennsylvania)
NACGN. See National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN)
Nash Engineering Company
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Boston branch
and Elinor’s stand on school segregation
National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN)
National Council of Negro Women
National Nursing Council for War Service
National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party). See Germany, Nazi (Hitler’s Third Reich)
Naval Nurse Corp
New England Conservatory of Music
New England Hospital for Women and Children
New York City
black population
Elinor’s nursing school education
Harlem
Jim Crow segregation
race riots (1943)
tuberculosis epidemic
New York State’s interracial marriage laws
New York Times
Nichols Army Hospital (Louisville, Kentucky)
92nd Division (U.S. Army)
93rd Division (U.S. Army)
Nuremberg Laws
nursing profession
American Nurses Association
black nursing schools
state board examinations and qualifications
wartime nursing shortage and proposed conscription (draft)
See also black army nurses of the U.S. Army Nurse Corps
Office of the Provost Marshal Office
Oppeln, Germany
Owsley, Alvin M.
Parker, Charlie
Patton, George
Pearl Harbor attack (1941)
Pepperidge Farm (Connecticut)
Petty, Mary L.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Phoenix, Arizona
See also Camp Florence (Arizona POW camp)
Phyllis Wheatley School (Morton, Pennsylvania)
Piasecki Helicopter Company (Morton, Pennsylvania)
Pittsburgh Courier
Planned Parenthood
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
P.M. (New York daily)
Poland, Hitler’s occupation of
Polite, Marjorie
Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr.
Powell, Albert
Powell, Elinor Elizabeth. See Albert, Elinor Elizabeth Powell
Powell, Ellen “Ella” Wade
Powell, Gladys (Elinor’s sister)
Powell, Gladys Farrow (Elinor’s mother)
community work
death
and Elinor’s marriage to Frederick
Girl Scouting
husband’s death and new widowhood
marriage and family
move to Milton, Massachusetts
opinion of Frederick
outspokenness and dominant, bullying personality
relationship with daughter Elinor
Powell, John
Powell, Ruth
Powell, William I.
Powell, William L. (Lawrence) (Elinor’s father)
death
marriage and family
Milton, Massachusetts family and early life
wife’s bullying treatment of
World War I military service in Kentucky
Prairie View A&M University
prisoners of war (POW) camps
assignment of black army nurses to
local residents’ opinions of
postwar closure and re-purposing of
in the rural South
statistics on
See also Camp Florence (Arizona POW camp); German prisoners of war (POWs) in US camps
racial discrimination and segregation (Jim Crow laws)
black army nurses
at Camp Florence
Elinor and Frederick’s avoidance of discussion of
Elinor’s experiences of
at Fort Huachuca
German POWs’ opinions of
and German-born mixed-race children (“brown babies”)
Kentucky
landlords, mortgages, and housing restrictions
lynchings
mixed-race couples and marriage laws
New York City
Plessy v. Ferguson and separate but equal doctrine
restaurants and dining rooms
school segregation in Morton, Pennsylvania
Truman’s Executive Order banning segregation in the military
in the U.S. military and POW camps
by white soldiers in postwar Germany
See also interracial (mixed-race) couples; mixed-race children
Radeke, Ray
Red Cross. See American Red Cross; International Red Cross
Reich Chamber of Visual Arts
Reichsarbeitsdienst (RAD) (State Labor Service)
Remond, Charles Lenox
Revolutionary War
Rockefeller, John D.
Rockefeller, Laura Spelman
Rommel, Erwin
Roosevelt, Eleanor
Roosevelt, Franklin D.
school segregation
Selective Service and Training Act
Severloh, Hein
Shumate, Josephine L.
Smedley School (Morton, Pennsylvania)
Somerville, Brehon B.
South Norwalk, Connecticut (Village Creek community)
Spelman College
Staupers, Mabel Keaton
efforts to ensure equal treatment of black nurses
Suffolk Reserves
Superior Rotary Club of Florence, Arizona
Taylor, Hope
Third Reich. See Germany, Nazi (Hitler’s Third Reich)
39th United States Colored Troops (USCT) Regiment Infantry
Thoms, Adah
366th Infantry Regiment (U.S. Army)
368th Infantry Regiment (U.S. Army)
Tomblin, Barbara Brooks
Treaty of Versailles
Truman, Harry
tuberculosis epidemic
Tucson, Arizona
Tuskegee Institute nursing training course
Tutsek, Charlotte Albert
on childhood with brother Frederick
on Elinor and Frederick’s life in Germany
on Frederick’s postwar return to Europe
on growing up under the Third Reich
on her father
marriage
on parents’ discipline and emotional remoteness
in postwar Vienna
25th Infantry (U.S. Army)
Underground Railroad
U.S. Armed Forces Radio
U.S. Army Nurse Corps. See black army nurses of the U.S. Army Nurse Corps
U.S. Public Health Service
V-Discs (records for U.S. military personnel)
Veitscher Magnesitwerke
Vienna, Austria
Albert family’s relocation to
postwar
Village Creek community (South Norwalk, Connecticut)
Walter Baker & Company (Milton, Massachusetts)
Weimar Republic
Weiskircher, Captain (German POW at Camp Florence)
White, Walter
Wilcox, Roger
Wilhelm, Kurt
Wilkins, Roy
Wollaston, Massachusetts
Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAC)
Woolworth’s department store (Phoenix, Arizona)
World War I
black nurses
black soldiers
German POWS detained in U.S.
Germany and the war’s aftermath
Lawrence Powell’s service
World War II
American war preparedness efforts
Americans’ service
black soldiers
end of
Hitler’s occupation of Poland
northern Africa campaigns
nursing shortage and proposed conscription
Pearl Harbor attack
postwar Germany
postwar process of returning POWs to Europe
postwar return of American soldiers
POW statistics
See also black army nurses of the U.S. Army Nurse Corps
X, Malcolm
Yank (army weekly newspaper)
Young, Charles
Ziegler, Adolf
Zürn, Paul
About the Author
Previously an editor at Town & Country magazine, Alexis Clark is a freelance journalist who has written for the New York Times, Yahoo, The Root, Condé Nast Traveler, and other publications. An alumna of Spelman College, Clark holds master’s degrees from the University of Virginia and Columbia Journalism School, where she’s currently an adjunct professor. She lives in New York City.
Publishing in the Public Interest
Thank you for reading this book published by The New Press. The New Press is a nonprofit, public interest publisher. New Press books and authors play a crucial role in sparking conversations about the key political and social issues of our day.
We hope you enjoyed this book and that you will stay in touch with The New Press. Here are a few ways to stay up to date with our books, events, and the issues we cover:
•Sign up at www.thenewpress.com/subscribe to receive updates on New Press authors and issues and to be notified about local events
•Like us on Facebook: www.facebook.com/newpressbooks
•Follow us on Twitter: www.twitter.com/thenewpress
Please consider buying New Press books for yourself; for friends and family; and to donate to schools, libraries, community centers, prison libraries, and other organizations involved with the issues our authors write about.
The New Press is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. You can also support our work with a tax-deductible gift by visiting www.thenewpress.com/donate.