4.21–22 Punishment is announced on Edom (cf. Ps 137.7; Ezek 25.12–14; Ob 10–15).
4.21 Rejoice…daughter Edom is ironic (cf. note on 1.6). On the cup of God’s wrath, see Ps 75.8; Jer 25.15–28.
4.22 Accomplished…no longer, or “complete, he will not exile you again,” sounds a note of hope for Zion, but this poem does not end with a petition (cf. 3.64–66).
LAMENTATIONS 5
A Plea for Mercy
1Remember, O LORD, what has befallen us;
look, and see our disgrace!
2Our inheritance has been turned over to strangers,
our homes to aliens.
3We have become orphans, fatherless;
our mothers are like widows.
4We must pay for the water we drink;
the wood we get must be bought.
5With a yokea on our necks we are hard driven;
we are weary, we are given no rest.
6We have made a pact withb Egypt and Assyria,
to get enough bread.
7Our ancestors sinned; they are no more,
and we bear their iniquities.
8Slaves rule over us;
there is no one to deliver us from their hand.
9We get our bread at the peril of our lives,
because of the sword in the wilderness.
10Our skin is black as an oven
from the scorching heat of famine.
11Women are raped in Zion,
virgins in the towns of Judah.
12Princes are hung up by their hands;
no respect is shown to the elders.
13Young men are compelled to grind,
and boys stagger under loads of wood.
14The old men have left the city gate,
the young men their music.
15The joy of our hearts has ceased;
our dancing has been turned to mourning.
16The crown has fallen from our head;
woe to us, for we have sinned!
17Because of this our hearts are sick,
because of these things our eyes have grown dim:
18because of Mount Zion, which lies desolate;
jackals prowl over it.
19But you, O LORD, reign forever;
your throne endures to all generations.
20Why have you forgotten us completely?
Why have you forsaken us these many days?
21Restore us to yourself, O LORD, that we may be restored;
renew our days as of old—
22unless you have utterly rejected us,
and are angry with us beyond measure.
* * *
a Symmachus: Heb lacks With a yoke
b Heb have given the hand to
5.1–22 A communal lament that describes life in the occupied land; it is entirely in petition form as if completing the previous chapter. The community begs God to see their unspeakable pain and sorrow.
5.1 The disgrace, or “derision” (cf. Pss 44.13; 79.4, 12), that God is asked to remember (cf. Pss 74.2, 18, 22;137.7) is spelled out in greater detail in vv. 2–18.
5.2 Our inheritance, the land God gave Israel (see Deut 4.38; 25.19; 26.1). Israel in turn was called God’s inheritance (see Deut 4.20; 9.26, 29; 32.9).
5.3 Orphans…widows, marginalized groups vulnerable to abuse and in need of special protection (see Ex 22.21–14; Deut 24.17–18, 21–22; 27.19). Here the terms are used metaphorically.
5.5 Yoke. See note on 1.14.
5.7 Like Jer 31.29; Ezek 18.2, this verse could be read as a complaint about unmerited suffering caused by the ancestors, i.e., as a denial of present responsibility—but see v. 16 (see also 1.14, 18; 3.42)—or it may express identification with the people’s sinful ancestors. Cf. also Ex 20.5; 34.7; Deut 5.9; Deut 7.10; 24.16.
5.10 Our skin is black, probably from malnutrition. See 4.8.
5.12 Their hands, the enemy’s hands.
5.14 Old men…city gate. The elders customarily carried out judicial functions in the city gate (see Deut 22.15; 25.7; Ruth 4.1–2, 11).
5.15 The cessation of joy signifies the vast interruption of daily life (Jer 16.9; Ezek 24.25; Hos 2.11).
5.16 The crown…from our head figuratively refers to Israel’s humiliation (cf. Job 19.9; Isa 62.3).
5.17 Because of this…these things looks back to vv. 2–16 as well as forward to v. 18.
5.18 An alternate translation of this verse is possible: “On Mount Zion, which is desolate, jackals roam about.” The roaming of jackals (or “foxes”) over ruins is a traditional picture of desolation found in treaty or covenant curses (see Isa 13.22; 34.13; Jer 9.11;10.22; 49.33; 51.37).
5.19 The hymnic declaration of faith in God’s sovereign rule (cf. Pss 93.1–2; 102.12) provides the context for the petition that follows.
5.20 Such impassioned questioning of God is characteristic of biblical prayer (see Pss 10.1; 13.1–2; 22.1;44.23–24; 74.11; 79.5, 10).
5.21 Restore us…that we may be restored acknowledges the necessity of divine intervention to effect true penitence, much as in Ps 80.3, 7, 19; Jer 31.18; 23.22; cf. Deut 30.6.
5.22 Unless you have utterly rejected us. The possibility of such rejection is left open and the book ends in a state of uncertainty. Its expression of doubt in God’s fidelity to the people is appropriate and honest. The book can serve as a step toward healing because it does not whitewash the pain of people who have survived trauma and disaster.
EZEKIEL
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EZEKIEL AND THE BOOK ASSOCIATED WITH HIM have perplexed readers for centuries. Ezekiel, of priestly lineage, becomes a prophet. He speaks, falls down, acts out God’s word, travels between Mesopotamia and Syro-Palestine in a trance, sees strange things, and proclaims dangerous messages. Perhaps it is not surprising that according to some Jewish traditions the book was to be read only by those over thirty. Nonetheless, discerning readers of Ezekiel have the opportunity to encounter one of ancient Israel’s most vigorous religious thinkers, an individual concerned with both classical priestly concerns—purity and holiness—and prophetic issues—righteousness and religious propriety.
Historical Context
THE NUMEROUS CHRONOLOGICAL FORMULAS that occur throughout the book (e.g., 1.1–3; 20.1; 24.1; 32.1; 40.1) attest to the pivotal times during which Ezekiel lived. Such formulas indicate that Ezekiel prophesied from 593 to 571 BCE. These years span the decisive moment—587 BCE—when Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar (whom Ezekiel deemed an instrument of God, 29.19–20). Before Ezekiel was commissioned as prophet, he had been taken into exile, along with other prominent Judahites, in 597 BCE, the year in which Nebuchadnezzar first defeated Jerusalem. After that date there were prominent Yahwistic communities in both Babylon and Judah. In fact, there were two kings—the exiled Jehoiachin and the puppet Zedekiah—in these two areas, respectively. Ezek 11.14–21 attests to Ezekiel’s solidarity with the community in exile, though he also addressed those who remained in the land.
Prophet
EZEKIEL HAD BEEN BORN INTO A PRIESTLY FAMILY (1.3), probably Zadokite, and had followed the ritual requirements that allowed one to work as a priest. He was married, though his wife predeceased him (24.15–27); the book mentions no offspring. Before 597 he lived in Jerusalem; afterward not far from Nippur, on the banks of an irrigation canal. In exile, other Judahites consulted him on a regular basis (8.1; 14.1; 20.1), which suggests that he had significant stature in that expatriate community. Although the book includes vision reports with vivid imagery, such literature, which is stylized, does not readily allow readers to make judgments about the personality of the prophet.
Book
THE BOOK IS MADE up of four primary sections: chs. 1–24, judgment concerning Judah and Jerusalem; chs. 25–32, oracles about foreign nations; chs. 33–39, r
estoration discourses; and chs. 40–48, a vision of the new temple and polity. These divisions are not absolute, however, since promises of restoration (e.g., 17.22–24) appear in the first section and an oracle of restoration appears in the second section (28.25–26). Unlike Isaiah and more like Jeremiah, much of the book is written in prose—though the NRSV discerns more poetry than did the RSV (e.g., ch. 7). Divine utterance, rather than prophetic utterance, is the predominant rhetorical style.
Ezekiel used diverse literary forms in his prophetic proclamation, including vision reports (1.1–3.15; 8.1–11.25; 37.1–14; 40.1–48.35) and at least twelve symbolic actions (e.g., 4.1–3). The three long vision reports may be understood as the beginning, middle, and end of the book. In both vision and symbolic action reports, the prophet is described as physically involved—he is transported and tours in visions; he acts out oracles. Other important forms include allegory (e.g., chs. 15–17), quotations (e.g., 8.12; 9.9), some of which introduce disputations (e.g. 18.2, 19, 25), and proof sayings, which incorporate the formulaic expression “You shall know that I am the LORD,” an expression that appears more than fifty times. Moreover, priestly legal argumentation (e.g., ch. 18) as well as priestly vocabulary and imagery (e.g., of the enthroned “glory of the LORD”) characterize the book. The so-called Holiness Code, Lev 17–26, one type of priestly literature, seems particular close to ideas and expressions present in Ezekiel (e.g., one may compare Lev 17 with Ezek 14.1–11 and Lev 26.4–13 with Ezek 34.25–31).
Scholars have explained the composition of the book in diverse ways. Some have discerned a long process of editorial reinterpretation, which may have begun with Ezekiel himself. Others maintain that most of the book may be attributed directly to the prophet. Moreover, while some hold that the prophet originally delivered his discourses orally, others maintain that much in the book was, from the outset, written.
The Septuagint (Greek version) of Ezekiel is roughly 5 percent shorter than the Masoretic (Hebrew) Text and probably derives from an early form of the book. Ezek 12.26–28, 32.25–26; 36.23b–38, not present on one important septuagintal papyrus, are likely later additions to the emerging book. This newer material reflects eschatological concerns.
Message
EZEKIEL RESPONDED DIRECTLY to the circumstances that the Israelites, particularly those in exile, confronted. Before 587 BCE words of judgment predominated; after 587 words of consolation and restoration were prominent. None were immune from judgment, even those already in exile. Those still in Judah were, however, singled out for the brunt of God’s attack (9.3–11).
The book presents distinctive theological formulations. The three primary visions offer a creative theology of divine presence. In the first, Ezekiel depicts the deity in both traditional (light imagery, 1.4) and innovative ways (moving wheels, 1.19). This motif of mobility is of fundamental theological importance: the deity can leave the temple (ch. 10), be experienced in exile, and then return to the temple (ch. 43).
Concern for the religious status of the individual works itself out in several ways. The prophet’s task is defined as that of a sentinel who may personally succeed or fail (3.16–21; 33.7–16). More generally, God will respond to individual Israelites according to their deeds (18.20).
Consistent with his priestly status, Ezekiel construed the problems of and promise for Israel in priestly theological terms. Instead of injustice, as in Amos, Ezekiel speaks of “abominations,” a Hebrew word for ritual impurity. Idolatrous behavior at the temple required punishment (ch. 8). As a result, the “glory of the LORD” had to leave Jerusalem. Then the defiled temple and those who worshiped there could be destroyed. Once the defilement was removed, a new temple with new regulations would provide the focus for a restored Israel.
Though imbued with Israel’s theological traditions, Ezekiel thought in creative ways. In his reviews of Israel’s history, he deemed Israel fundamentally foreign and recalcitrant from its beginnings (ch. 16). Moreover, Israel’s ensuing experiences with God justified radical punishment—obliteration without regard for a remnant. Such finality made it difficult to imagine a viable future. Hence, the well-known vision of dry bones (37.1–14) is truly remarkable—expressing the notion that what is dead, God’s people, might live again. The comprehensive vision of new life (chs. 40–48) may properly be termed utopian. The new “torah of the temple” will reorder religious and political life as well as redefine geographic boundaries. Ezekiel’s theology is one in which God is other and acts to preserve the sanctity of the deity’s name. When God acts, foreign nations (28.23), as well as Israel, will know that the Lord—and no other—is God. [DAVID L. PETERSEN]
EZEKIEL 1
The Vision of the Chariot
1In the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, on the fifth day of the month, as I was among the exiles by the river Chebar, the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God. 2On the fifth day of the month (it was the fifth year of the exile of King Jehoiachin), 3the word of the LORD came to the priest Ezekiel son of Buzi, in the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar; and the hand of the LORD was on him there.
4As I looked, a stormy wind came out of the north: a great cloud with brightness around it and fire flashing forth continually, and in the middle of the fire, something like gleaming amber. 5In the middle of it was something like four living creatures. This was their appearance: they were of human form. 6Each had four faces, and each of them had four wings. 7Their legs were straight, and the soles of their feet were like the sole of a calf’s foot; and they sparkled like burnished bronze. 8Under their wings on their four sides they had human hands. And the four had their faces and their wings thus: 9their wings touched one another; each of them moved straight ahead, without turning as they moved. 10As for the appearance of their faces: the four had the face of a human being, the face of a lion on the right side, the face of an ox on the left side, and the face of an eagle; 11such were their faces. Their wings were spread out above; each creature had two wings, each of which touched the wing of another, while two covered their bodies. 12Each moved straight ahead; wherever the spirit would go, they went, without turning as they went. 13In the middle ofa the living creatures there was something that looked like burning coals of fire, like torches moving to and fro among the living creatures; the fire was bright, and lightning issued from the fire. 14The living creatures darted to and fro, like a flash of lightning.
15As I looked at the living creatures, I saw a wheel on the earth beside the living creatures, one for each of the four of them.b 16As for the appearance of the wheels and their construction: their appearance was like the gleaming of beryl; and the four had the same form, their construction being something like a wheel within a wheel. 17When they moved, they moved in any of the four directions without veering as they moved. 18Their rims were tall and awesome, for the rims of all four were full of eyes all around. 19When the living creatures moved, the wheels moved beside them; and when the living creatures rose from the earth, the wheels rose. 20Wherever the spirit would go, they went, and the wheels rose along with them; for the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels. 21When they moved, the others moved; when they stopped, the others stopped; and when they rose from the earth, the wheels rose along with them; for the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels.
22Over the heads of the living creatures there was something like a dome, shining like crystal,c spread out above their heads. 23Under the dome their wings were stretched out straight, one toward another; and each of the creatures had two wings covering its body. 24When they moved, I heard the sound of their wings like the sound of mighty waters, like the thunder of the Almighty,d a sound of tumult like the sound of an army; when they stopped, they let down their wings. 25And there came a voice from above the dome over their heads; when they stopped, they let down their wings.
26And above the dome over their heads there was something like a throne, in appearance like sapphire;e and seated above the likeness of a throne was something that seemed like a
human form. 27Upward from what appeared like the loins I saw something like gleaming amber, something that looked like fire enclosed all around; and downward from what looked like the loins I saw something that looked like fire, and there was a splendor all around. 28Like the bow in a cloud on a rainy day, such was the appearance of the splendor all around. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD.
When I saw it, I fell on my face, and I heard the voice of someone speaking.
next chapter
* * *
a Gk OL: Heb And the appearance of
b Heb of their faces
c Gk: Heb like the awesome crystal
d Traditional rendering of Heb Shaddai
e Or lapis lazuli
1.1–3.15 Ezekiel’s inaugural vision, which may be compared with shorter, though similar, accounts in Isa 6; Jer 1. God calls Ezekiel to act as a prophet and provides him with instructions about fulfilling this task. Other vision reports are in 8.1–11.25; 37.1–14; 40.1–48.35.
1.1–3 The book’s introduction places the prophet in Babylonia and dates his activity by reference to a Judahite king, Jehoiachin, now in exile.
1.1 Thirtieth year, probably Ezekiel’s age when he experienced this vision. The river Chebar, a canal, not a natural river, near Nippur.
1.2 Jehoiachin, Ezekiel, and others were exiled to Babylon in 597 BCE. The fifth year of the exile would have been 593. This is the first of thirteen such chronological notices (1.2; 8.1; 20.1;24.1; 26.1; 29.1; 29.17; 30.20; 31.1; 32.1; 32.17; 33.21;40.1).
1.3 The priest, either Ezekiel or Buzi, though most probably Ezekiel. Ezekiel is defined as a priest because of his lineage, whereas he becomes a prophet because of this visionary experience. The land of the Chaldeans, the plains of southern Mesopotamia, associated with an Aramean-speaking people who had entered this area earlier in the first millennium BCE. The hand of the LORD, a phrase indicative of spirit possession; cf. 3.14.22; 8.1; 33.22; 37.1; 40.1. This phrase is present at the beginning of each of Ezekiel’s four vision reports.
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