14.7 A return from the Diaspora to the land of Israel is a common topic in texts of the Greco-Roman period (cf. Sir 36.11; Bar 4.21–5.9; Psalms of Solomon 11; 1 Enoch 90.33). In keeping with a major emphasis in the patriarchal narratives (Gen 12.1; 13.14–18; 15.7, 18–19), Israel is identified as the land of Abraham.
14.8–11a Tobit’s testament concludes with a summary of ethical instruction that reiterates motifs in ch. 4 and 12.8–10. Here Tobit’s example is supplemented by those of Nadab and Ahikar (v. 10); on Ahikar’s almsgiving, see 2.10.
14.11b–15 The honorable funeral of Tobit (v. 11b) and the reference to Tobias’s inheritance (v. 13) are final reminders that this is a story about the wealthy. For this author, the pious rich deserve splendid burials. Cf. Lk 16.19–31; 1 Enoch 103.5–8.
14.13 Tobias’s responsibility as a son extends to the burial of his parents-in-law.
14.15 The destruction of Nineveh guarantees the fulfillment of the other predictions in Tobit’s testament. Not surprisingly, the book ends with Tobias blessing the Lord.
JUDITH
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WRITTEN IN GREEK and found only in the Septuagint, Judith is excluded from the Hebrew canon as an “outside book.” Protestants regard Judith as part of the Apocrypha. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians designate Judith as one of the deuterocanonical books in the OT, listing it as one of the historical books.
The story is extant in four Greek recensions (Septuagint codices Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, and Basiliano-Vaticanus), four translations (Old Latin, Syriac, Sahidic, and Ethiopic), and other relatively late abridged and modified Hebrew versions. Despite Jerome’s claim in the Vulgate to have translated an Aramaic text, no ancient Aramaic or Hebrew manuscripts have been found. The oldest extant text of Judith is likely a third-century CE potsherd on which Jdt 15.1–7 is preserved.
Setting and Date
JUDITH IS AN ANONYMOUS BOOK, likely written by a Palestinian Jew. Nothing is known about its author, except what can be surmised from the story itself, which is written in Greek that imitates Hebrew idiom and syntax. The story imaginatively intermingles references to well-known geographic sites with uncertain and even imaginary ones. Judith shows familiarity with Palestinian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Greek history and geography, and most especially Jewish religious customs of the second and first centuries BCE.
Judith is replete with conflated details drawn from at least five centuries. There are historical references to Nineveh (1.1; 2.21), the Assyrian capital destroyed in the seventh century (612 BCE); Nebuchadnezzar (1.1), a sixth-century Babylonian ruler (605/4–562 BCE); the Second Temple (4.3), rebuilt by 515 BCE; two characters with Persian names, Holofernes and Bagoas (12.10–11), who appear together in the fourth century in the campaigns of Artaxerxes III Ochus (358–338 BCE); as well as references associated with the second century BCE when Antiochus IV Epiphanes required that the Jews forsake their God (cf. 3.8) and when the Jews were governed by a high priest (cf. 4.6) with military and religious responsibilities (cf. 1 Macc 14.41–49).
A reference to Judith in the First Letter of Clement of Rome in the first century CE makes it clear that the story was composed before this time. Most likely Judith was composed late in the second or early in the first century BCE, during the late Hasmonean period.
The story would fit well in the reign of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), who served as both king and high priest of Jerusalem. Early in Hyrcanus’s reign, after Jerusalem had been under siege for a year, he agreed to pay a heavy tribute to the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidetes. On the death of Antiochus in 129 BCE, Hyrcanus ceased paying the indemnity and expanded the borders of his territory. He forced the Idumeans (Edomites) to become Jews. Similar issues related to the fear of military domination and disputes over which god should be served figure in the story of Judith.
Narrative Character and Structure
THERE CAN BE NO DOUBT that Judith was composed as didactic fiction, not factual history. Not only are historical and geographical details of the story conflated, but its most important scene and star character are otherwise unknown. Most of the story takes place during two fateful months in 587 BCE in the little town Bethulia, described as strategically located to the north of Jerusalem in the region of Samaria, but otherwise unknown in Palestinian geography. For thirty-four days Bethulia is under attack (7.20); for four days Judith, the otherwise unknown courageous woman who delivers her people, is in the enemy camp (12.10); and for thirty days the Israelites go out from this town to plunder the Assyrians (15.11).
The sixteen chapters of Judith divide into two balanced and proportional parts. Each is structured internally by a threefold chiastic pattern that repeats certain narrative components in reverse order. Part 1 (1.1–7.32) narrates a military and religious struggle that begins in Persia and makes its way across the western nations to the little Israelite town of Bethulia. Nebu chadnezzar’s political sovereignty over all the nations of the western world and God’s divine sovereignty over Israel come into direct conflict. Judging themselves guilty of some sin (7.28), the besieged Bethulians lose faith and declare that God has abandoned them (7.25). Crisis makes apostasy and slavery look appealing, and they ask their leaders to surrender. Uzziah, a town official, suggests a compromise that gives God five days to deliver them. As Part 1 ends, the Bethulians, “in great misery” (7.32), have temporarily postponed what seems inevitable surrender, destruction of their sanctuary, and worship of Nebuchadnezzar.
Part 2 (8.1–16.25) tells how the God-fearing woman Judith destroys the enemies of Israel. This “beautiful” widow of Manasseh (8.7) lays aside the sackcloth of her widowhood in order to make herself “very beautiful, to entice the eyes of all the men who might see her” (10.4). The elders of Bethulia (10.7), the Assyrian patrol (10.14), the entire Assyrian camp (10.19), and, most important, Holofernes, the Assyrian general (10.23), marvel at her “beauty.” Holofernes and his servants acclaim her as “beautiful” and “wise in speech” (11.21, 23). Holofernes is so aroused that he instructs his eunuch, Bagoas, to persuade her to eat and drink with them so that he might have an opportunity for sexual intercourse with her (12.13). Judith, who “fears God with great devotion” (8.8), takes advantage of his drunkenness to cut off his head. The Assyrian army flees in panic. The Israelites plunder the camp, and Judith is hailed as the “glory of Jerusalem” and the “great boast of Israel” (15.9).
Together the two parts convey a message similar to what we find in the book of Judges. God delivers his people when they cry to him and can bring low an arrogant king, even by the hand of a woman. [TONI CRAVEN, revised by JOHN J. COLLINS]
Judith 1
Arphaxad Fortifies Ecbatana
1It was the twelfth year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled over the Assyrians in the great city of Nineveh. In those days Arphaxad ruled over the Medes in Ecbatana. 2He built walls around Ecbatana with hewn stones three cubits thick and six cubits long; he made the walls seventy cubits high and fifty cubits wide. 3At its gates he raised towers one hundred cubits high and sixty cubits wide at the foundations. 4He made its gates seventy cubits high and forty cubits wide to allow his armies to march out in force and his infantry to form their ranks. 5Then King Nebuchadnezzar made war against King Arphaxad in the great plain that is on the borders of Ragau. 6There rallied to him all the people of the hill country and all those who lived along the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Hydaspes, and, on the plain, Arioch, king of the Elymeans. Thus, many nations joined the forces of the Chaldeans.a
Nebuchadnezzar Issues Ultimatum
7Then Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, sent messengers to all who lived in Persia and to all who lived in the west, those who lived in Cilicia and Damascus, Lebanon and Antilebanon, and all who lived along the seacoast, 8and those among the nations of Carmel and Gilead, and Upper Galilee and the great plain of Esdraelon, 9and all who were in Samaria and its towns, and beyond the Jo
rdan as far as Jerusalem and Bethany and Chelous and Kadesh and the river of Egypt, and Tahpanhes and Raamses and the whole land of Goshen, 10even beyond Tanis and Memphis, and all who lived in Egypt as far as the borders of Ethiopia. 11But all who lived in the whole region disregarded the summons of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, and refused to join him in the war; for they were not afraid of him, but regarded him as only one man.b So they sent back his messengers empty-handed and in disgrace.
12Then Nebuchadnezzar became very angry with this whole region, and swore by his throne and kingdom that he would take revenge on the whole territory of Cilicia and Damascus and Syria, that he would kill with his sword also all the inhabitants of the land of Moab, and the people of Ammon, and all Judea, and every one in Egypt, as far as the coasts of the two seas.
Arphaxad Is Defeated
13In the seventeenth year he led his forces against King Arphaxad and defeated him in battle, overthrowing the whole army of Arphaxad and all his cavalry and all his chariots. 14Thus he took possession of his towns and came to Ecbatana, captured its towers, plundered its markets, and turned its glory into disgrace. 15He captured Arphaxad in the mountains of Ragau and struck him down with his spears, thus destroying him once and for all. 16Then he returned to Nineveh, he and all his combined forces, a vast body of troops; and there he and his forces rested and feasted for one hundred twenty days.
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a Syr: Gk Cheleoudites
b Or a man
1.1–7.32 Part 1.
1.1–16 Introduction to Nebuchadnezzar and his campaign against Arphaxad. Arphaxad and his strongly fortified capital city, Ecbatana, are destroyed. Vassal nations who do and do not join Nebuchadnezzar are listed.
1.1 Nebuchadnezzar (605/4–562 BCE), the most famous Neo-Babylonian king, ruled from Babylon, not Nineveh, and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BCE (2 Kings 24–25). His father, Nabopolassar, together with Cyaxares, the king of the Medes, destroyed the Assyrian capital Nineveh in 612. Nebuchadnezzar is described as a military aggressor against the invented character Arphaxad in his Median capital. Ecbatana, modern Hamadan, three hundred miles northeast of Babylon and three hundred and twenty-five southeast of Nineveh, a favorite summer palace of the Persian King Cyrus; the city figures in Tob 3.7 as the home of Sarah, the daughter of Edna and Raguel, and in Ezra 6.2 as the place where the edict permitting the Babylonian exiles to return home was preserved.
1.5 Ragau, two hundred miles northeast of Ecbatana, mentioned in v. 15 as the place where Arphaxad is slain.
1.6 Chaldeans, Neo-Babylonians.
1.11 The whole region of the west corresponds to Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt; see note on 2.1.
1.12 The two seas, unclear, possibly the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.
1.13 In the seventeenth year (588 BCE), without the help of the nations of the west, Nebuchadnezzar defeats Arphaxad.
Judith 2
The Expedition against the West
1In the eighteenth year, on the twenty-second day of the first month, there was talk in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, about carrying out his revenge on the whole region, just as he had said. 2He summoned all his ministers and all his nobles and set before them his secret plan and recounted fully, with his own lips, all the wickedness of the region.a 3They decided that every one who had not obeyed his command should be destroyed.
4When he had completed his plan, Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, called Holofernes, the chief general of his army, second only to himself, and said to him, 5“Thus says the Great King, the lord of the whole earth: Leave my presence and take with you men confident in their strength, one hundred twenty thousand foot soldiers and twelve thousand cavalry. 6March out against all the land to the west, because they disobeyed my orders. 7Tell them to prepare earth and water, for I am coming against them in my anger, and will cover the whole face of the earth with the feet of my troops, to whom I will hand them over to be plundered. 8Their wounded shall fill their ravines and gullies, and the swelling river shall be filled with their dead. 9I will lead them away captive to the ends of the whole earth. 10You shall go and seize all their territory for me in advance. They must yield themselves to you, and you shall hold them for me until the day of their punishment. 11But to those who resist show no mercy, but hand them over to slaughter and plunder throughout your whole region. 12For as I live, and by the power of my kingdom, what I have spoken I will accomplish by my own hand. 13And you—take care not to transgress any of your lord’s commands, but carry them out exactly as I have ordered you; do it without delay.”
Campaign of Holofernes
14So Holofernes left the presence of his lord, and summoned all the commanders, generals, and officers of the Assyrian army. 15He mustered the picked troops by divisions as his lord had ordered him to do, one hundred twenty thousand of them, together with twelve thousand archers on horseback, 16and he organized them as a great army is marshaled for a campaign. 17He took along a vast number of camels and donkeys and mules for transport, and innumerable sheep and oxen and goats for food; 18also ample rations for everyone, and a huge amount of gold and silver from the royal palace.
19Then he set out with his whole army, to go ahead of King Nebuchadnezzar and to cover the whole face of the earth to the west with their chariots and cavalry and picked foot soldiers. 20Along with them went a mixed crowd like a swarm of locusts, like the dustb of the earth—a multitude that could not be counted.
21They marched for three days from Nineveh to the plain of Bectileth, and camped opposite Bectileth near the mountain that is to the north of Upper Cilicia. 22From there Holofernesc took his whole army, the infantry, cavalry, and chariots, and went up into the hill country. 23He ravaged Put and Lud, and plundered all the Rassisites and the Ishmaelites on the border of the desert, south of the country of the Chelleans. 24Then he followedd the Euphrates and passed through Mesopotamia and destroyed all the fortified towns along the brook Abron, as far as the sea. 25He also seized the territory of Cilicia, and killed everyone who resisted him. Then he came to the southern borders of Japheth, facing Arabia. 26He surrounded all the Midianites, and burned their tents and plundered their sheepfolds. 27Then he went down into the plain of Damascus during the wheat harvest, and burned all their fields and destroyed their flocks and herds and sacked their towns and ravaged their lands and put all their young men to the sword.
28So fear and dread of him fell upon all the people who lived along the seacoast, at Sidon and Tyre, and those who lived in Sur and Ocina and all who lived in Jamnia. Those who lived in Azotus and Ascalon feared him greatly.
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a Meaning of Gk uncertain
b Gk sand
c Gk he
d Or crossed
2.1–13 Nebuchadnezzar commissions Holofernes to take vengeance on the disobedient vassal nations.
2.1 Most of the story (2.1–16.20) is imagined as having occurred in the eighteenth year, the catastrophic year 587/6 BCE, when Jerusalem actually fell to the historical Nebuchadnezzar. Revenge is planned against the whole region, meaning all the nations west of Persia as far as Egypt. These nations are mentioned nine times in chs. 1–2: 1.7–10 specifies the nations; the whole region (or the region) appears again in 1.11; 1.12; 2.1; 2.2; 2.11; all the land to the west in 2.6; the whole face of the earth to the west in 2.19; and 2.23–28 details the ravaging of specific western nations.
2.2 Ironically Nebuchadnezzar fully recounts his secret plan…with his own lips, but in 8.34 Judith keeps her plan secret.
2.5–13 Calling himself the Great King, the lord of the whole earth, Nebuchadnezzar, in his only speech, declares that all the rebel lands must surrender.
2.10–13 Nebuchadnezzar specifically instructs Holofernes to seize the disobedient territory and hold it, killing with no mercy (v. 11) only those who refuse to surrender.
2.14–7.32 Holofernes attacks the western nations. The confrontation between the various
nations who refused to aid Nebuchadnezzar is told in a threefold chiastic structure—similar episodes are repeated in reverse order. Each unit is defined by a major shift of scene, alternation between the nations of Assyria and Israel, and a temporal clause. In the following notes, the scenes are labeled A, B, C, and their counterparts, C', B', A'. In domino-like fashion, the nations fall to Assyria as “terror” sweeps across the empire at large (2.28), then Judea (4.1), and finally Bethulia (7.4).
2.14–3.10 In Section A of the first chiastic unit (see note on 2.14–7.32), Holofernes leads the campaign against the disobedient nations; the vassals surrender. The line of advance is from Nineveh to Damascus; all the vassals are ravaged, plundered, burned, and destroyed.
2.21 The plain of Bectileth, an unidentified plain opposite Upper Cilicia, a distance of three hundred miles from Nineveh, which would be impossible to cover in three days.
2.23 Put and Lud, Rassisites, Chelleans, unknown locations and peoples here in proximity to Cilicia (a large and important area in the southeastern coastal zone of Asia Minor, divided into western and eastern parts by the Lamus River). Ishmaelites, Arabs.
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