by Matt Cardin
Unbound and softcover books—if not exactly paperbacks—had existed almost since the existence of movable type, and during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the German Tauchnitz imprint was well known for providing English-language editions of books for European readers. Furthermore, the American readers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were familiar with such paperbound works as dime novels and the book-sized imprints of Street & Smith. Nevertheless, no standardizations existed for size or pagination, and it was not until 1939—coincidentally, the year in which Arkham House’s first book was published—that publisher Robert de Graaf partnered with American publisher Simon & Schuster to issue the Pocket Books imprint, thus creating what has become known as the “mass market paperback.” Pocket Books proved sufficiently successful that other publishers rapidly followed suit, including, during the Second World War, the Council on Books in War Time, which issued paperbacks for the U.S. military and thus prepared an entire generation of readers for small and portable paperback books. Many of the Armed Services Editions were genre literature, but so far as is known, only one was horrific: H. P. Lovecraft’s The Dunwich Horror and Other Weird Tales (1945?). Perhaps not coincidentally, a paperback collection of Lovecraft’s writings was already in existence from another publisher, The Weird Shadow over Innsmouth and Other Stories of the Supernatural (1944).
Accompanying the development of the paperback was the realization that fiction could be anthologized and reprinted only so many times, and that purchasing audiences existed for paperbacks that printed original material. It would seem that American publisher and writer Donald Wollheim was the first to extend this recognition to fantasy and horror, with the series that became The Avon Fantasy Reader (1947). Other publishers followed suit.
From the late 1940s forward, then, horror anthologies existed in hardcover and paperback, their contents as likely to be original as reprint, and editors tended not to be too restrictive on definitions. Indeed, although representing ostensibly edgy science fiction, many of the stories in Harlan Ellison’s Dangerous Visions (1967) were fantastic, and some, such as Fritz Leiber’s “Gonna Roll the Bones” and Norman Spinrad’s “Carcinoma Angels,” were overtly horrific. Starting in the late 1960s, American editor Roger Elwood edited a number of anthologies, beginning with reprints in The Little Monsters (1969) and Horror Hunters (1971), and rapidly progressing to original contents in such works as Demon Kind (1973) and The Berserkers (1974). Furthermore, although children had often been protagonists in fairy tales and horror fiction, genre anthologies intended for a younger readership interested in horror literature had not previously been published. But these, too, began to appear at this time.
English-language horror anthologies were thus relatively widely available from the 1970s, in paperback as well as hardcover, and published by small presses as well as major publishers. Two events occurred to change the concept of anthologies. First, although numerous editors had compiled numerous horror anthologies, and a number of series had existed since Donald Wollheim’s Avon Fantasy Reader, nobody had attempted to combine a widespread systematization of the selection of the contents with the systematic marketing of genre-specific anthologies. In 1974, Martin Harry Greenberg, a recent PhD in political science, compiled (with Patricia Warrick) Political Science Fiction: An Introductory Reader (1974) to assist with a class they were co-teaching. Recognizing that a market existed, he soon compiled other anthologies dealing with science fiction, and then he began branching into other subjects. He assembled a group of scholars and enthusiasts who were willing to assist him in compiling the contents, and found numerous writers willing to write genre-specific stories. The former included such people as Stefan Dziemianowicz and Robert E. Weinberg, and the books they co-edited included such titles as Weird Tales: 32 Unearthed Terrors (1988), 100 Ghastly Little Ghost Stories (1993), 100 Creepy Little Creature Stories (1994), and Miskatonic University (1996, only by Greenberg and Weinberg). At the time of his death in 2011, Greenberg had edited nearly 1,300 books, the majority of them fantastic, with a sizable percentage of these being fantasy and horror.
Changes in printing technology—the birth of so-called “desktop publishing”—and the near simultaneous digital revolution of the 1990s and beyond likewise changed the concept of anthologies. The former meant that costs of printing and binding could be minimized, there would be no costs for storage, and material could be distributed directly to purchasers rather than through intermediaries (bookstores). The latter initially meant that horror anthologies could be made available on CD-ROM at a fraction of the cost of a printed volume, and the new technology meant that not only could anthologies offer more stories, but their contents could include audio and video files to supplement the reading experience. Although CD-ROMs remain available, active horror anthologists who wish to avoid traditional print technologies now distribute their fiction via the World Wide Web and may use text, images, and sound in combination. Horror anthology websites exist for apparently all tastes. The traditional-minded will find fictive homages to such writers as Bram Stoker, William Hope Hodgson, and H. P. Lovecraft; the technologically inclined will find science fiction horror anthologies; and there is a great deal of erotic horror.
Finally, the digital revolution has allowed self-publishing to become reinvented and achieve a semi-respectability. While for some the term “self-publishing” implies an obsession with a photocopy machine—and before this, either a mimeograph or a hectograph—self-publishing is an enormous business, with such multinationals as Amazon competing with such companies as Lulu and Xlibris and iUniverse to deliver fiction to the reader, either in traditional book form or to such ereaders as Kindles and Nooks. That readers may likewise determine the contents of their anthologies, downloading and swapping out stories at will, not only guarantees the future of the anthology but permits the creation of communities of like-minded enthusiasts. The horrific anthology is, like so many monstrous and horrific beings, effectively immortal.
Richard Bleiler
See also: Horror Literature in the Internet Age; The Legacy of Frankenstein: From Gothic Novel to Cultural Myth; Part One, Horror through History: Horror in the Middle Ages; Horror in the Early Modern Era; Horror in the Nineteenth Century; Horror from 1900 to 1950; Horror from 1950 to 2000; Horror in the Twenty-First Century; Part Three, Reference Entries: Arkham House; Derleth, August; Ellison, Harlan; Le Fanu, J. Sheridan; Leiber, Fritz; Lovecraft, H. P.; O’Brien, Fitz-James; Wakefield, H. R.; Wandrei, Donald; Weird Tales.
Further Reading
Ashley, Mike, and William G. Contento. 1995. The Supernatural Index: A Listing of Fantasy, Supernatural, Occult, Weird, and Horror Anthologies. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Chalker, Jack L., and Mark Owings. 1998. The Science-Fantasy Publishers: A Bibliographic History, 1923–1998. Westminster, MD, and Baltimore: Mirage Press.
Fraser, Phyllis, and Herbert Wise. [1944] 1994. Great Tales of Terror and the Supernatural. New York: Random House.
Hartwell, David G., ed. 1987. The Dark Descent. New York: Tor.
Hartwell, David G., ed. 1992. Foundations of Fear. New York: Tor.
Joshi, S. T. 2009. Classics and Contemporaries: Some Notes on Horror Fiction. New York: Hippocampus Press.
Utterson, Sarah. 1813. Tales of the Dead. London: White, Cochrane. http://knarf.english.upenn.edu/EtAlia/tdtp.html.
HORROR COMICS
Horror comics have long been a staple in the comic book industry, and they also have a curious history. Born in the 1940s as an offshoot of mainstream comic books, horror comics went on to color the imaginations of generations of readers, with an impact extending beyond comic books as such to influence the wider world of horror entertainment at large. They were also implicated in the mainstreaming of formerly “outsider” viewpoints in American society beginning in the 1970s.
In 1933 publisher Max Gaines (ca. 1895–1947) created the pamphlet-style “comic book” form. A decade later, in 1944, he founded Educational Comics (
EC), which published such fare as Picture Stories from the Bible and other titles meant to ground children in morality. But this was not what his audiences wanted to read. Instead, they desired mainly tales of action and adventure. Gaines was also instrumental in the history of another early comics company, All-American Publications, which was later consolidated—along with National Comics and Detective Comics—into DC. He was also centrally involved in bringing both Wonder Woman and Superman to market. On his own, he tried new methods and continually worked to refine his approach, despite the lackluster performance of his overtly moralistic efforts.
Gaines died in a boating accident in 1947 while on vacation, and his son, William M. Gaines (1922–1992), known as Bill to his friends, became the president of the failing EC brand that same year, at the age of 25. One of the first things Bill Gaines decided to do was to change the company’s name from “Educational Comics” to “Entertaining Comics,” which signaled an internal shift of focus while retaining the recognizable EC logo. Ironically, the new EC would become—in a sense—even more instructive than its former incarnation, presenting readers with stories far more educational than any verbatim reading of Bible tales or classic literary fare.
After changing the company’s name, the younger Gaines’s next initiative was to carve away the titles that underperformed while adding others that appeared to have greater potential. The staff was not exempt from this reform: some of the existing artists and writers did not appeal to Gaines’s personal aesthetic (he was an atheist, and also an ardent reader of science fiction and horror), and so he put out a call for interested novices to send their portfolios to his attention at EC’s New York City headquarters. The resulting shakeup in the creative lineup at EC led to groundbreaking results, with a wholesale shift to publishing horror, science fiction, war, and satirical comics.
Of course, EC, although today it is the most recognizable brand name associated with the original golden age of such comics, was not the first comic book company to tackle these types of stories. Others had laid the groundwork by taking the elder Gaines’s notion of the comic book and attempting to create sales through an assortment of approaches, including supernatural offerings and other popular trends, such as detective and crime stories. With a large debt to the pulps that had preceded them, these adventure-oriented comics were tinged with spectacular and often horrific elements. The first dedicated horror comic was likely Gilberton Publications’ Classic Comics #13 (1943), which adapted Robert Louis Stevenson’s 1886 novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Later, Avon Publications produced Eerie #1 (1947, the same year of Max Gaines’s untimely death), which was comprised of all original horror content (and which is not to be confused with Warren Publishing’s identically named title of the 1960s through the 1980s).
In light of these developments in the market, and freed from his father’s overly moralistic influence, the third thing Bill Gaines did was to permanently move away from Max Gaines’s vision and concentrate instead on the types of stories that interested him personally: tales of a speculative nature. Before he came to understand the real desires of his readership, Bill Gaines had played it cautious and tried to straddle the line between his ideas and those of his father. But this new and complete shift of focus was a stroke of genius all his own. Though it took some time to transition the old vision to the new, by about the end of 1951, the trajectory had been set and Gaines had assembled an amazing collection of new artists, writers, and editors for the EC stable: Al Feldstein, Johnny Craig, Jack Kamen, Ray Bradbury, Joe Orlando, Bernard Krigstein, Wally Wood, Jack Davis, Frank Frazetta, Graham Ingels, Al Williamson, Harvey Kurtzman, Will Eder, siblings John and Marie Severin, and more.
During this productive time for Gaines and EC, other companies played catch-up with Gaines’s successful formula, though several of them had been dabbling in these areas prior to the conversion of EC from “Educational” to “Entertaining.” EC, though now the most popular of these companies, was being eroded in the market due to competition from its rivals, who upped the ante with respect to the salacious and graphic images they were willing to offer. EC and Gaines, along with his support staff, such as Craig and Feldstein, were less interested in outdoing their competitors with gore and smut, and more interested in ensuring the quality of their stories and final product. They even began an exclusive partnership with the very popular author Ray Bradbury to adapt his works in comic book format with his approval and input.
Adding to these pressures of success were the condemnations of Dr. Fredric Wertham, an eminent American psychiatrist who turned his attention to the study of the comic book industry. As a senior psychiatrist with the New York Department of Hospitals, he focused on the very successful EC (which was also based in New York City) and its more lurid imitators, drawing bogus conclusions that boredom and entertainment, and comic books in particular, were the root causes of the rise in juvenile delinquency in the United States during this time. For good or ill, the foundations of his arguments—laid out in his shocking book Seduction of the Innocent (1954)—still resonate today, though the stress has now shifted away from comic books to sexuality and violence in video games, television, music, film, and other artistic and entertainment forms; and the criticism has expanded to encompass not just juvenile delinquency but an erosion or coarsening of the culture as a whole. Ironically, Wertham later renounced some of his beliefs; unfortunately, the die was cast.
Later in 1954, the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency convened hearings to address these concerns. Bill Gaines admirably defended the practices of the industry in general and EC particularly, but in spite of his strong performance in this battle, he and the rest of the trade would ultimately lose the war. As a result of the intense political pressure, the industry capitulated to self-regulation rather than risking further government intervention, and in the same year established the so-called Comics Code Authority (CCA), which oversaw a strict new “Code of Conduct” modeled on the motion picture Hays Code. These restrictions were solely for comic books; magazines—defined as an oversized format not aimed at children (though many of EC’s most ardent readers were adult males)—were exempt. This would actually prove to be a boon for DC and Marvel Comics, two companies that had already mined the superhero concept to great effect, since the loss of, and refocus away from, horror and science fiction titles was less onerous for them than for some other publishers, especially Gaines’s EC empire. As a result of these developments, EC was forced, after a brief and failed attempt at rebranding, to cancel all of its titles due to the burdensome restrictions. Only their popular MAD magazine survived, as it was already published in magazine format.
Later in the 1960s, one publisher decided to tackle the underrepresented horror comics market by staying in the larger magazine format, thus avoiding the quicksand of the CCA seal. Warren Publishing, owned by James Warren, was already successful in the magazine business as the publisher of Famous Monsters of Filmland, edited by the now-legendary Forrest J. Ackerman. Warren would eventually go on to publish several magazines—including the horror titles Creepy, Eerie, and Vampirella (a female vampire character created by Ackerman)—and to employ a number of EC alumni, including Jack Davis, Frank Frazetta (by then a well-respected fine artist), Al Williamson, John Severin, Joe Orlando, Johnny Craig, and others.
Significant Events in the History of Horror Comics
1933
Creation of the familiar pamphlet “comic book” by publisher Max Gaines (ca. 1895–1947).
1943
Gilberton Publications’ Classic Comics #13 adapts Robert Louis Stevenson’s 1886 novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
1944
Max Gaines founds Educational Comics (Picture Stories from the Bible, etc.).
1947
Avon Publications produces Eerie #1, comprised of all original horror content. Max Gaines dies in a boating accident, and his son, William M. Gaines, inherits Educational Comics.
1949–1
950
William Gaines changes the direction of the company toward more genre-related works (horror, sci-fi, fantasy, war, Western, etc.); the name is changed to Entertaining Comics (commonly known as EC).
1954
Dr. Fredric Wertham publishes his bombshell book Seduction of the Innocent. U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency convenes. The comic book industry agrees to self-regulate rather than risk further government intervention, establishing the Comics Code Authority (CCA) seal and a “Code of Conduct” modeled on the motion picture Hays Code.
1955
Due to CCA restrictions, EC cancels all titles except MAD, which is exempt from the CCA restrictions since it is in magazine format. Other companies comply with the CCA seal.
1957
James Warren founds Warren Publishing.
1958
Warren Publishing releases the first issue of Famous Monsters of Filmland.
1964
Warren Publishing: Creepy #1.
1966
Warren Publishing: Eerie #1.
1960s–late 1980s
Marvel and DC publish “light” horror titles (CCA approved): House of Secrets (DC), House of Mystery (DC), Werewolf by Night (Marvel), Tomb of Dracula (Marvel). Smaller independent houses such as Charlton and Gold Key publish dark or sci-fi fare (CCA approved): The Twilight Zone, Star Trek, The Many Ghosts of Doctor Graves, Ghost Manor, etc. Non-CCA fare flourishes as Underground Comix (counterculture in nature).
2011
The CCA is effectively abandoned.