The following scheme resumes the noun morphology:
Masculine Feminine
Singular abs. -Ø -T (-t or -ōt < *-át)
Dual abs. -M (-ēm < *-aym) -TM (-tēm < *-taym)
Plural abs. -M (-īm) -T (-ōt/, < *-āt, > -ūt) (Latino-Punic sanut)
Singular cst. -Ø? written as singular abs. (cf. later for plural)
Dual cst. -Ø (-ē < *-ay) (not attested)
Plural cst. -Ø (-ē) written as the plural st. abs.
Numerals
Cardinal Numbers
Cardinal numbers mostly agree with Hebrew:
Writing Possible pronunciation
1. ’ḤD (m.), ’ḤT (f.) ’aḥad, ’aḥat
2. ŠNM (m.) šenēm < *šinayim (cf. Latino-Punic lisnim, “for the two/both”)
3. ŠLŠ (m.), ŠLŠT (f.) šalōš > šalūš (Aug. salus), šelōšat > šelōšot
4. ’RB‘ (m.) ’RB‘T (f.) ’arba‘, ’arb’at
5. ḤMŠ (m.), ḤMŠT (f.) ḥamiš, ḥamišt
6. ŠŠ (m.), ŠŠT (f.) šiš, šišt
7. ŠB‘ (m.) (f. not attested) šab‘ or šaba‘
8. ŠMN (m.) (f. not attested) šemonē
9. TŠ‘ (m.) (f. not attested) tiš‘ or tiša‘
10. ‘SR (m. late Punic), ‘ŠRT (f.) ‘asr, ‘asart ? (*‘ašr, *’ašrt, written also ‘ŠR)
The numbers 11 to 19 are formed with the number 10 followed by the unit, preceded by W- (“and”); for example, ‘SR W’ḤD, “eleven,” ‘SR WŠB‘, “seventeen.” The numbers from 20 to 90 are the plurals of the respective units (‘ŠRM 20, ‘išrīm, ŠLŠM 30, šalōšīm, etc.); 100 is M’T, mi’ot (?); and 1000 is ’LP, ’alp.
The numbers 1 and 2 are adjectives and agree in gender with the counted noun; beginning from 3, they are used as nouns, the feminine form being used for the masculine and the masculine for the feminine; for example, NṢBM…ŠNM “two stelae” (KAI 64, 1); ŠLŠT BN MRZḤY, “the three sons of MRZḤY” (KAI 40, 4). In Late Punic this rule is not always followed: YŠBM ’RB‘, “four seats” (KAI 130, 5).
The numbers 2 to 10 may be placed before the noun counted in construct state (or in absolute state): ŠN BN ’SRŠMR, “the two sons of Osiršamor” (KAI 47, 3); but ‘ŠRT H’ŠM, “the ten men” (KAI 80, 1); or in the absolute state after the number: MQDŠM ŠNM, “two sanctuaries” (KAI 137, 1).
From 21 on, the tenth may be placed before the unit, preceded by W-; for example, ‘SRM WŠB‘, “twenty-seven”; or the unit may precede the tenth, without W-, as in ŠLŠ ḤMŠM, “fifty-three.”
Ordinal Numbers
Few examples are attested. They have the form of adjectives with the suffix -y (nisbe): ŠNY, “second”; ŠLŠY, “third”; ’RB‘Y, “fourth”; and so on with the article: YM H’RB‘Y (KAI 76, B.1), “in the fourth day.”
Fractions
Only a few fractions are attested: RB‘, feminine; RB‘T, “one quarter”; RB‘ ŠLŠT, “three quarters”—for example, LKHNM KSP RB‘ ŠLŠT B’ḤD, “to the priests three quarters silver for each (animal)” (KAI 69, 11); ḤṢY, “half.”
Multiples
P‘MT + numeral is used to express x number of times—for example, RB MḤNT P‘MT ‘SR W’ḤT, “Chief of the army (= consul) eleven times” (KAI 120, 1); P‘MT ‘SR W’RB‘, “and Imperator fourteen times” (KAI 120, 1)); ‘D P‘MT BRBM, “many times” (KAI 68, 5).
Dates
To count days and years, Phoenician uses the cardinal numbers; these can be expressed with letters, figures, or both; for example, ŠLŠ ḤMŠM ŠT L‘M [ṢR], “in the 53rd year of the people of [Tyre]” (KAI 19, 8); BYRḤ BL BŠNT 2 LMLKY, “in the month of Bul, in the 2nd year of his reign” (KAI 38, 2); BŠNT ‘SR W’RB‘ 14 LMLKY MLK ’ŠMN‘ZR, “in the 14th year of his reign of King Eshmun‘azor” (KAI 14, 1).
The noun for year is generally in the plural, but in some cases it can be in the singular (e.g., 1).
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Phoenician, as the other Semitic languages, possesses a series of independent personal pronouns and a series of pronouns suffixed to the noun (genitive/possessive: “his house”) and to the verb (accusative/object: “he vowed it”). Independent personal pronouns are:
First singular: common ’NK; late also ’NKY (’anōkī)
Second singular:
Masculine ’T (’attā)
Feminine ’T (’attī)
Third singular:
Masculine H’ (hū’)
Feminine H’ (hī’)
First plural: common: ’NḤN (’anaḥnū)
Third plural:
Masculine HMT (humat?)
Feminine HMT (himat?)
Only old Byblian has a long form H’T, hū’atu(?), for the third masculine singular pronoun (KAI 4, 2), probably to emphasize the subject, and originally used for the oblique case (genitive), as in Ugaritic hwt (genitive). Suffixed pronouns are attached to nouns, prepositions (genitive), and verbs (object/accusative). Their forms are identical except for the first-person singular. The following scheme shows the reconstructed original morphemes and their usual written attestations in Phoenician:
Reconstructed Writing
First singular:
Genitive -ī, -ya Ø or -Y
Accusative -nī -N
Second singular:
Masculine –kā -K
Feminine –kī -K; Late Punic, -KY
Third singular:
Masculine –hū Byblos: -H, Ø, -W
Phoenician: Ø or –Y
Punic -’ or –Y
Late Punic: also -Y’, -M
Feminine –hī Byblos: -H
Phoenician: Ø or -Y
Punic -’ or -Y
Late Punic: also -‘, Y’
First plural –nū -N
Second plural:
Masculine –kumu -KM
Feminine —
Third plural:
Masculine –humu Old Byblian: -HM
Phoenician and Punic: -M or -NM
Feminine -hima
What follows are some further notes concerning the personal pronouns’ attested orthographies and their pronunciation:
First Person Singular
• Genitive: (a) after a consonant: -ī, at Byblos and in Ancient Phoenician not written; in Phoenician from about 700 bce and in Punic written –Y; (b) After a vowel: *-ya > ī, written -Y.
• Accusative (after a verb): -nī, written -N.
Second Person Masculine and Ffeminine Singular
Written -K, but the feminine -kī is assured by Late Punic -KY (‘BDKY, “your ([fem.] servant,” CIS 3777, 1).
Third Person Singular Masculine
The original -hū is preserved only in the most ancient phase of Byblian (Aḥīrōm, KAI 1): SPRH, “his inscription” (siprahū or sipruhū); MLKH (mulkihū), “(the throne of) his kingship”; ŠTH (šotahū), “he deposed him.”
In the other periods/phases and dialects, forms without -h are attested (elision between vowels), as follows, depending on the ending of the word specified:
(a) *-a-hū > -aw > -ō, not written in late Byblian and in Standard Phoenician; in Punic, written alef (’);
(b) *-i-hū (original genitive) and *-ī/ēhū (plurals) > -i-w, -ī-w, -ē-w, written -W in the dialect of Byblos (ancient Byblian, except Aḥīrōm, and late Byblian)
(c) *-i-hū and long V-hū > -i-yū or long V-yū, written -Y; in Late Punic also -Y’.
(d) In Late Punic, there is a variant -im, written -M, whose origin is uncertain (Huehnergard 1991).
(e) *-t-hū > -ttū, -ū not written.
Third Person Singular Feminine
-hā is preserved in the dialect of Byblos, also in the Persian period, after i and long V: ‘ammūdēhā “its (fem.) columns,” (‘MDH, KAI 10, 6); maspanōtēhā “its (fem.) roofs” (MSPNTH, KAI 10, 6); yasōdihā “of its (fem.!) base” (YSDH, KAI 10, 14). In the other phases/dialects, the feminine suffix follows the same rul
es as the masculine:
(a) *-a-hā > -aā > -ā not written in Phoenician; written -’ in Punic, -’ or -‘ in Late Punic.
(b) *-i-hā and long V-hā > -i-yā/long V-yā, written -Y in Phoenician, Punic, and Late Punic (in this phase, also Y’ and Y‘).
(c) *-t-hā > perhaps -ttā, -ā not written; in Punic, written ’.
First Person Plural
The writing is -N; the pronunciation was probably -nū, as in Hebrew (and in the Amarna letters). Later the final vowel tended to drop.
Second Person Plural Masculine
* -kumu becomes -kom (e.g., possibly, in Poen. 933, syllohom “yours”).
Third Person Plural Masculine
*-humu > -hum; written -HM, it is preserved in Byblos (KAI 10, 6: ‘LHM, “upon them”). In Standard Phoenician and Punic, the development is:
Masculine
(a) *-a-hum > -ōm (written -M).
(b) After -i- or long V, the variant attested is written -NM (not clearly explained), pronounced -nōm (cf. Latino-Punic labunom, “for their father”).
Feminine
*-hima, not attested. In Phoenician and Punic, the variants are:
(a) *-a-him > probably -ēm (written -M), attested only, wrongly after a genitive in Punic DL ’ZRTM, “with their families (?)” (in CIS I 5510, 5–6, beside ’ZRTNM).
(b) After -i- or long V >, probably -nēm (written -NM); for example, in NḤTNM, “(the resting-place) of their peace (i.e., their tomb)” (KAI 34, 5).
Demonstrative Adjectives/Pronouns
Singular
• In ancient Byblian (and perhaps Ur Box, KAI 29): masculine ZN.
• Late Byblian: masculine ZN, and Z with difference not clear; feminine of ZN, Z’.
• Standard Phoenician and Punic: masculine and feminine Z.
• Variants: especially in Cyprus (but also in Sarepta and the West): masculine and feminine ’Z with ptothetic alef. One example in Cyprus (KAI 30, ninth century bc) has masc. Z’.
• Late Punic: new masculine and feminine morpheme ST, with orthographic variations (Poen sy/ith, ysot).
Plural
Common ’L. Notes:
• For Byblian ZN, the proposed reconstruction is zinā (?) (Z’ was probably zō’ [alef perhaps indicating a long vowel?]).
• In Phoenician, masculine Z was perhaps pronounced zī (cf. Hebrew) (Gzella 2011: zū); feminine was perhaps *zā > zō (Hebrew zōt); ’Z perhaps ’ăzī/ū and ’ăzō.
• Plural ’L was perhaps ’il(l)ē (analogy with Hebrew and ily Poen. 938).
• The demonstratives mainly follow the noun; they precede it in nominal clauses (cf. MZBḤ Z, “this altar,” and Z MZBḤ, “this is the altar”).
As generally in Semitic, the pronouns H’ and HMT are used in the meaning of “that,” “those.”
Relative/Determinative Markers
In Phoenician, the relative marker is ’Š (pronounced ’eš < *’aš?). For example, BMQM ’Š BNT, “in the place that I built” (bammaqōm ’eš banītī) (KAI 14, 4); ’NḤN ’Š BNN, “(I Eshmun‘azor…and my mother)…are we who built” (KAI 14, 16–17); NDR ’Š NDR, “a vow which he vowed” (nidr ’eš nadōr).
The form is generally explained as the relative/determinative element ša- with prothetic alef (different from Hebrew ’ašer, thought to be an innovation; now contra Huehnergard 2006).
Proclitic Š is used already in Phoenician and more often in Punic and Late Punic as a determinative element, alone or combined with L- (ŠL-); it can replace the chain construct state + genitive (e.g., ḤTM Š + personal name, “seal of PN,” JKF 1, 43 f.).
In the ancient Byblian dialect, the relative is Z (zī/ū), replaced later by Standard Phoenician ’Š. For example, ’RN Z P‘L ’TB‘L (KAI 1, 1, Aḥīrōm), “The sarcophagus which Itt(ô)ba‘l made” (for the reading of the PN, see now Lehmann 2015).
Interrogative/Indefinite Pronouns
As in the other Semitic languages, Phoenician had one interrogative/indefinite pronoun for persons, *miya > mī (written MY), “who?/whoever,” and one for things, *mā > mō > mū (written M, Punic M’), “what?/whatever.” For example, MY ’T, miy(a) ’attā, “whoever you are” (KAI 13, 3).
M can be used combined with the relative: M’Š: M’Š P‘LT, “what I accomplished…” (KAI 24, 4).
In Late Punic, M’ and MY are used as relatives, replacing ’Š: e.g., LMY = Lat. cui in IPT 27 (32), 7; MNṢBT M’ P‘L, “Stele that x did,” IPT 77 (39), 1; Latino Punic: mynṣyifth ymu fel + PN, “stele that PN did” (Kerr 2010, Gasr Doga LP1).
The interrogative use is not attested in the inscriptions. It is deduced from mu?, “what?,” in Plautus, Caecus vel praedones, fr. 10; mi?, “who?” is attested in Poen. 1010, and deduced from comparison.
Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions
Negation
For affirmative statements, Phoenician uses BL (bal)—for example, with verbs BL P‘L, “he did nothing” (KAI 24, 3, etc.). Also, ’Y (’ayy?) is used in the examples known preceded by K—for example, K ’Y ŠM BN MNM, “for they did not lay anything in it” (KAI 14, 5, not unanimously explained).
In some cases, ’Y and BL are combined, giving the variant ’BL (’YBL in Punic); for example, W’M ’BL TŠT ŠM ’TK, “and if you do not put my name with your own” (KAI 10, 13). Phoenician does not seem to possess the Hebrew adverb lō’ (common Semitic *lā); however, BL with nouns—for example, BL ’TY, “not at my time, before my time” (KAI 14, 3.12), has been explained as a combination of B- + L’, bĕlō (Pat-El 2013: 63, 65).
For prohibitions, ’L (’al) is used; e.g., ’L TŠM‘, “do not listen” (KAI 14, 6).
Adverbs
Of place, ŠM (šam), “there”; K’ (kō?), “here.” Of time/way, LPNM (lapanīm), “before” (L+ PNM “face”); ‘D (‘adē), “until,” “also,” “furthermore;” MTM, “always”; BL…MTM, “never.” Other adverbs attested are: KN, “so”; ’PS, “only;” ḤNM, “gratis;” LḤD, “alone.”
Prepositions
As in the other Semitic languages, some prepositions are prefixed: B- (bi-), “in” (can be enlarged BN-); L- (la-), “for,” “to”; K- (ka-), “as”; MN (min), “from,” which is only sometimes prefixed, with assimilation of N to the following consonant.
Independent prepositions attested are: ’ḤR (’aḥar), “after”; ’L (’il?), “to,” “towards”; ’T (’itt), “with”; BN (bēn), “between”; DL (dal), “with,” “together with”; ‘L (‘al(ē)), “on” (variant: ‘LT); TḤT, (taḥt) “under.”
Combinations of prepositions are frequent; for example, L- + MN: LMN‘RY, “from his youth” (laminne‘ūriyō ?) (KAI 24, 12). Also attested are L+B- and often L+M(N)+B.
The direct complement can be introduced by ’YT (’iyat) > Punic’ T > T.
The genitive complement can be expressed by the relative/determinative and (sometimes + L-): HBT ŠG‘Y, “the house of Gaius” (KAI 124, 4).
Conjunctions
The usual conjunction is W- (*wa- > u-; prefixed). Other conjunctions attested include ’P, (’ap), “also”; ’M (’im), “if,” used to introduce conditional clauses (’M…’M corresponds to “either…or”); BD (B-+YD, *bi-yad > *bād > bōd), “by”; BLT, “only,” “except”; K-, KM (ka, ka/emō?), “as”; K- (kī), “for,” “because,” emphatic or causal; KN, LKN (kēn, lakēn), “so,” “accordingly”; and LM, “lest.”
Verbs
Tenses and Moods
In Phoenician, the so-called tenses express the aspect of the action (finished, unfinished) and its modality (possibility or desire of a condition or of an event). As in Hebrew (and Aramaic), the distinction is between “Perfect” (suffix conjugation) and “Imperfect” (prefix conjugation).
The Perfect can be translated with a past (simple, or perfect) or a future perfect. The Imperfect can be translated with a present or a future. It can express also duration or a possibility. The forms reconstructed are (model KTB, “he wrote”):
Perfect
Sing
ular
First: masculine/feminine KTB-T (katab-tī) (Late Punic: -TY)
Second:
Masculine KTB-T (katab-tā)(?)
Feminine KTB-T (katab-tī) (?)
Third:
Masculine KTB (katōb < *katáb)
Feminine KTB (katab-ā < *katab-at (Late Punic: KTB’ and KTB‘)
Plural
First: masculine/feminine KTB-N (katab-nū)
Second:
Masculine (not attested)
Feminine (not attested)
Third: masculine/feminine KTB (katab-ū) (Late Punic KTB’)
The suffix -t of the third feminine singular is preserved before suffixes; for example, P‘LTN, “she made me” (pa‘alatnī) (KAI 10, 2).
The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean Page 31