by Ruby K Payne
What are Sally and SueAnn's resources? Check yes by the resources that are present, check no by the ones that are not, or check question mark where the resources are uncertain.
DISCUSSION OF SCENARIOS
Significantly, each scenario illustrates a variance in the amount and kinds of resources available, as well as a variation on the theme of poverty. In marking the scenarios, this would be the manner in which the resources might be identified.
Knowledge of the hidden rules is marked in relationship to the knowledge base the individual has about middle-class rules. Each of the scenarios has aspects that are unique to poverty.
For example, the jail incident in the SueAnn scenario is one. For many individuals who live in poverty, jail is a part of their lives on a fairly regular basis for several reasons. First of all, if an individual is in generational poverty, organized society is viewed with distrust, even distaste. The line between what is legal and illegal is thin and often crossed. A lack of resources means that the individual will need to spend periods of time in jail for crossing those lines because he/she does not have the resources to avoid it. The reality is that middle class and upper class also cross the lines, but not with the frequency of those in poverty. In addition, the upper and middle classes usually have the resources to avoid jail. The poor simply see jail as a part of life and not necessarily always bad. Local jails provide food and shelter and, as a general rule, are not as violent or dangerous as state incarceration. SueAnn will probably get her husband out of jail because relationships are also more important in generational poverty than is money.
Another example of a poverty characteristic is the incident with Oprah at church where she receives the extra money and is immediately besieged with requests. One of the hidden rules of poverty is that any extra money is shared. Middle class puts a great deal of emphasis on being self-sufficient. In poverty, the clear understanding is that one will never get ahead, so when extra money is available, it is either shared or immediately spent. There are always emergencies and needs; one might as well enjoy the moment. Oprah will share the money; she has no choice. If she does not, the next time she is in need, she will be left in the cold. It is the hidden rule of the support system. In poverty, people are possessions, and people can rely only on each other. It is absolutely imperative that the needs of an individual come first. After all, that is all you have-people.
The discipline incident in "Otis and Vangie" is included because another aspect of generational poverty is that discipline is about penance and forgiveness, not about change. The mother is the most powerful figure in generational poverty. Not only does she control the limited resources, she is also the "keeper of the soul." She dispenses penance and forgiveness. The typical pattern in poverty for discipline is to verbally chastise the child, or physically beat the child, then forgive and feed him/her. The hidden rules about food in poverty is that food is equated with love. In the final analysis, all you have are people. How do you show people that you love them? You give them food so they can continue to live. One of the mistakes educators make is to misunderstand the role of punishment in generational poverty. As stated, punishment is not about change, it's about penance and forgiveness. Individuals in poverty usually have a strong belief in fate and destiny. Therefore, to expect changed behavior after a parent-teacher conference is, in most cases, a false hope.
The Juan/Ramon scenario is included to make some points about the role of violence and gangs in poverty. Gangs are a type of support system. They provide virtually all of the resources needed for survival. Fighting and physical violence are a part of poverty. People living in poverty need to be able to defend themselves physically, or they need someone to be their protector. Middle class uses space to deal with conflict and disagreement, i.e. they go to a different room and cool off; they purchase enough land so they are not encroached upon; they live in neighborhoods where people keep their distance. But in poverty, separation is not an option. The only way to defend turf is physically. Also, individuals in poverty are seldom going to call the police, for two reasons: First, the police may be looking for them; second, the police are going to be slow to respond. So why bother calling?
The Eileen/Wisteria scenario is included because of the growing number of children living with grandparents-and the effect this has on the emotional resources of the children. Emotional resources come from observing how role models deal with adverse situations and social interactions. Eileen will come out of the situation knowing that she doesn't want to be like her mother, but also that she doesn't want to be like her grandmother. So it will be difficult for her to identify an appropriate female role model. To have emotional resources that are healthy, one needs to have an identity. One uses role models to build that identity. Because of the limited financial resources of her grandmother, Eileen's access to appropriate role models will be limited to church and school.
The John/Adele scenario highlights the number of children who are in situational poverty because of divorce. Adele is making the slide from middle class to poverty, and she doesn't know the rules of poverty. Adele is an example of what happens when an individual allows her difficulties to erode her emotional resources. Because of her alcoholism, she is emotionally weak. (The reverse is also true, i.e., her emotional weakness leads to her dependence on alcohol.) Of all the resources, emotional resources seem to be paramount in maintaining a lifestyle with some semblance of order. When emotional resources are absent, the slide to poverty is almost guaranteed. But because her financial resources are limited, she must learn the rules of generational poverty. And one of the rules in generational poverty for women is this: you may need to use your body for survival. After all, that is all that is truly yours. Sex will bring in money and favors. Values are important, but they don't put food on the table-or bring relief from intense pressure. So Adele will probably go out with the mechanic, for two reasons: (i) She can get her car fixed and (2) she can have an evening out on the town.
Maria and Noemi are included because they represent the classic Hispanic pattern of poverty. In the Hispanic poverty pattern, the majority of families are two-parent. As can be seen, of all the scenarios Maria and Noemi have more resources than any of the others.
In conclusion, the resources that individuals have vary significantly from situation to situation. Poverty is more about other resources than it is about money. The other resources are those that educators can influence greatly.
WHAT DOES THIS INFORMATION MEAN IN THE SCHOOL OR WORK SETTING?
• Resources of students and adults should be analyzed before dispensing advice or seeking solutions to the situation. What may seem to be very workable suggestions from a middle-class point of view may be virtually impossible given the resources available to those in poverty.
• Educators have tremendous opportunities to influence some of the non-financial resources that make such a difference in students' lives. For example, it costs nothing to be an appropriate role model.
CHAPTER 2
The Role of language and Stork
-.5-o better understand poverty, one must understand three aspects of language: registers of language, discourse patterns, and story structure. Many of the key issues for schools and businesses are related to these three patterns that often are different in poverty than they are in middle class.
REGISTERS OF LANGUAGE
Every language in the world has five registers (Joos, 1967). These registers are the following:
RULE: loos .found that one can go one register down in the same conversation, and that is socially accepted. However, to drop two registers or more in the same conversation is to be socially offensive.
How then does this register impact students from poverty? First of all, the work of Dr. Maria Montano-Harmon (1991) found that the majority (of the students in her research) of minority students and poor students do not have access to formal register at home. As a matter of fact, these students cannot use formal register. The problem is that all the stat
e testsSAT, ACT, etc.-are in formal register. It is further complicated by the fact that to get a well-paying job, it is expected that one will be able to use formal register. Ability to use formal register is a hidden rule of the middle class. The inability to use it will knock one out of an interview in two or three minutes. The use of formal register, on the other hand, allows one to score well on tests and do well in school and higher education.
This use of formal register is further complicated by the fact that these students do not have the vocabulary or the knowledge of sentence structure and syntax to use formal register. When student conversations in the casual register are observed, much of the meaning comes not from the word choices, but from the non-verbal assists. To be asked to communicate in writing without the non-verbal assists is an overwhelming and formidable task, which most of them try to avoid. It has very little meaning for them.
DISCOURSE PATTERNS IN FORMAL AND CASUAL REGISTER
This pattern of registers is connected to the second issue: the patterns of discourse. Discourse will be discussed here with two different meanings. The first meaning is the manner in which the information is organized. In the formal register of English, the pattern is to get straight to the point. In casual register, the pattern is to go around and around and finally get to the point. For students who have no access to formal register, educators become frustrated with the tendency of these students to meander almost endlessly through a topic. It is simply the manner in which information is organized in casual register.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DISCOURSE
The other meaning associated with discourse is the notion of primary and secondary discourse issues (Gee, 1987). Primary discourse is the language an individual first acquired. Secondary discourse is the language of the larger society that the individual must be able to use to function in the larger society. For example, if a student has as his/her primary discourse casual register of Spanish, then he/she must also learn formal register of English in order to fully negotiate and participate in the larger American society. Gee points out that students do much better in school when their primary discourse is the same as their secondary discourse.
RAMIFICATIONS
Gee proceeds to make a distinction between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the best and most natural way to learn a language and is simply the immersion in, and constant interaction with, that language. Learning is the direct-teaching of a language and usually is at a more metacognitive level. However, what Gee does not talk about is the following: acquisition of language only occurs when there is a significant relationship. That then leads to the next question: To what extent can a formal institution create significant relationships? Just think ... would you learn to use sign language well if there were no significant relationship that called for that usage? Would you learn to speak Chinese well if there were no significant relationship?
Therefore, when we ask students to move from casual to formal register, we almost need to direct-teach it. Natural acquisition of formal register would require a significant relationship.
Montano-Harmon (1991) found that for students to move from casualregister English to formal-register English required them to translate because the word choice, sentence syntax, and discourse pattern are different. This translation becomes much more meaningful if there is a significant relationship. However, if there is not a significant relationship, then the instruction must be more direct.
PATTERNS OF DISCOURSE
In the oral-language tradition in which the casual register operates, the pattern of discourse is quite different. Discourse is defined as the organizational pattern of information (see graphic representations below).
Formal-Register Discourse Pattern
Casual-Register Discourse Pattern
How does this make a difference for students and teachers? First of all, parent-teacher conferences tend to be misunderstood on both sides. Teachers want to get right to the point; parents, particularly those from poverty, need to beat around the bush first. When teachers cut the conversation and get right to the point, parents view that as being rude and non-caring. Second, writing becomes particularly difficult for students because they tend to circle the mulberry bush and not meet the standard organizational pattern of getting to the point. This discourse pattern is coupled with a third pattern, that of story structure (see next page).
STORY STRUCTURE
Formal-Register Story Structure
The formal-register story structure starts at the beginning of the story and goes to the end in a chronological or accepted narrative pattern. The most important part of the story is the plot.
Casual-Register Story Structure
The casual-register story structure begins with the end of the story first or the part with the greatest emotional intensity. The story is told in vignettes, with audience participation in between. The story ends with a comment about the character and his/her value. The most important part of the story is the characterization.
CINDERELLA
To understand this story structure better, the story of Cinderella will be told both ways.
Formal-Register Version
(The story is abbreviated because of familiarity.)
Once upon a time, there was a girl named Cinderella. She was very happy, and she lived with her father. Her father remarried a woman who had three daughters. When Cinderella's father died, her stepmother treated Cinderella very badly and, in fact, made her the maid for herself and her three daughters. At the same time in this land, the King decided that it was time for the Prince to get married. So, he sent a summons to all the people in the kingdom to come to a ball. Cinderella was not allowed to go, but was forced to help her stepsisters and stepmother get ready for the ball. After they left for the ball, and as Cinderella was crying on the hearth, her fairy godmother came and, with her magic wand, gave Cinderella a beautiful dress, glass slippers, and a stagecoach made from pumpkins and mice. She then sent Cinderella to the ball in style. There was one stipulation: She had to be back home by midnight.
At the ball the Prince was completely taken with Cinderella and danced with her all evening. As the clock began striking midnight, Cinderella remembered what the fairy godmother had said and fled from the dance. All she left was one of her glass slippers.
The Prince held a big search, using the glass slipper as a way to identify the missing woman. He finally found Cinderella; she could wear the glass slipper. He married her, and they lived happily ever after.
Casual-Register Version
(Italicized type indicates the narrator; plain type indicates audience participation.) Well, you know Cinderella married the Prince, in spite of that old nasty stepmother.
Pointy eyes, that one. Old hag!
Good thing she had a fairy godmother or she never would've made it to the ball.
Lucky thing! God bless her ragged tail! Wish I had me a fairy godmother.
And to think she nearly messed up big time by staying 'til the clock was striking 12. After all the fairy godmother had done for her.
Urn, um. She shoulda known better. Eyes too full of the Prince, they were. They didn't call him the Prince for no reason.
When she got to the ball, her stepsisters and stepmother didn't even recognize her she was so beautiful without those rags.
Served 'em right, no-good jealous hags.
The Prince just couldn't quit dancing with her, just couldn't take his eyes off her. He had finally found his woman.
Lucky her! Lucky him! Sure wish life was a fairy tale. Kinda like the way I met Charlie. Ha ha.
The way she arrived was something else-a coach and horseman-really fancy. Too bad that when she ran out of there as the clock struck 12 all that was left was a pumpkin rolling away and four mice!
What a surprise for the mice!
Well, he has to find her because his heart is broken. So he takes the glass slipper and hunts for her-and her old wicked stepmother, of course, is hiding her.
&nbs
p; What a prize! Aren't they all?
But he finds her and marries her. Somebody as good as Cinderella deserved that.
Sure hope she never invited that stepmother to her castle. Should make her the maid!!
As is readily apparent, the second story structure is far more entertaining, more participatory and exhibits a richness of character, humor, and feeling absent from the first version. The first version has sequence, order, cause and effect, and a conclusion: all skills necessary for problem-solving, inference, etc.
Cognitive studies indicate that story structure is a way that the brain stores memories. Given the first story structure, memories would be stored more sequentially, and thinking patterns would follow story structure. Feuerstein (1980) describes the episodic, nearly random memory and its adverse effects on thinking.
WHAT CAN SCHOOLS DO TO ADDRESS CASUAL REGISTER, DISCOURSE PATTERNS, AND STORY STRUCTURE?
Because there is such a direct link between achievement and language, it must be addressed. The following suggestions are not exhaustive, but rather a place to begin.
1. Have students write in casual register, then translate into formal register. (To get examples of casual register down on paper, ask them to write the way they talk.)
2. Establish as part of a discipline plan a requirement that students learn how to express their displeasure in formal register and therefore not be reprimanded.
3. Use graphic organizers to show patterns of discourse.