by Unknown
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Satel ite imagery utilizes still photography, video feed, and mapping technology. Resolution from such distances (space, the final frontier) can be critical.
The smal est element in conventional film is the silver halide grain and, in high-resolution films, can be as small as 0.05 μm. The charge-coupled devices (CCDs) in intelligence grade recon sats are probably thirty times larger and, therefore, of greater resolution (Hough, 1991, p. 40). Conventional film, however, is not only real time deficient, but photos can only be interpreted using conventional methods unless converted to a digital format. Therefore, digital photography and computer enhancement and interpretation are more suitable (Hough, 1991, p. 42).
One of the first uses of real-time television images was the application of a return beam vidicon (RBV), but the resolution was inadequate for most intelligence applications. Multispectral scanners were developed to scan various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum because different types of light provide different types of information about targets (Hough, 1991, p. 43). The information from CCDs is passed to a controller, which labels the position of each of the charges in the overall picture and measures the electrical charge on a scale of 0–255, and transmits stored images back to earth. CCDs cannot capture as many bands of energy as multispectral scanners. They are limited to visible or near IR. They are also sensitive to low-level current, called a dark current, which can interfere with electrical signals and change images. This is countered by liquid gas or thermoelectric cooling (Hough, 1991, p. 47).
Radar can see through haze and clouds that hinders other viewing and is not dependent upon natural or independent light sources. Microwaves can provide data on the terrain, its electrical characteristics, and the physical characteristics of vegetation. Radar can even see some subsurface features, including submerged submarines and structures (Hough, 1991, pp. 48–49).
Passive radar is related to radio astronomy (sensing stellar objects with radar receivers), sensing the difference between incoming signals and reference signals. It can detect hot, high-conductivity objects (e.g., aircraft and vehicles) and can see through thin layers of soil, revealing underground structures.
While passive radar is itself nearly undetectable, it has the potential of detecting even stealth craft (Hough, 1991, pp. 53–54).
Mapping and Geographical Data
Aerial and satellite photos and maps are available from several open sources, not the least of which is the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), which has a web page at http:/ www.usgs.gov/. The USGS defines its mission as “a science organization that provides impartial information on the health of our ecosystems and environment, the natural hazards that threaten us, the natural resources we rely on, the impacts of climate and land-use change, and the core science systems that help us provide timely, relevant, and useable information.”
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Figure 10.11 Declassified briefing document to the president from the NRO
(note the handwritten comments).
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The NGA is a DoD combat support agency and a member of the national
intelligence community (IC). NGA develops imagery and map-based intel-
ligence solutions for U.S. national defense, homeland security, and safety of navigation. The NGA applies a wide range of geospatial intelligence
(GEOINT) capabilities, including imagery and geospatial and targeting analysis, with image sciences to produce imagery intelligence (IMINT) products.
The NRO is the U.S. government agency in charge of designing, building,
launching, and maintaining America’s intelligence satellites. Since 1961, the NRO has provided the reconnaissance support to the IC and DoD. Formed
in response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik, the NRO was secretly created on September 6, 1961, to oversee all satellite and overflight reconnaissance projects, whether overt or covert. The existence of the organization is no longer classified today, since its declassification was made public in 1992. As its mission states, the NRO is relentlessly working to foster “Innovative Overhead Intelligence Systems for National Security” and remains unwavering in its dedication to its vision and motto: “Vigilance From Above” (Figure 10.11).
GEOINT means the exploitation and analysis of imagery and geospatial
information to describe, assess, and visually depict physical features and geographically referenced activities on the earth. GEOINT consists of imagery, IMINT, and geospatial (e.g., mapping, charting, and geodesy) information.
Information collected and processed by NGA is tailored for customer- specific solutions. By giving customers ready access to GEOINT, NGA provides support to civilian and military leaders and contributes to the state of readiness of U.S. military forces.
Processing and Consuming Imagery Intelligence
Once images are returned from space as a stream of digital signals, these signals tell receiving stations the value of each pixel in the image (usual y between 0 and 255, with 0 representing black and 255 representing pure white). Once data are processed and displayed, images are sharpened by edge enhancement (making important objects easier to notice) or smoothing (eliminating sudden changes in intensity to make images less confusing and easier to see) (Hough, 1991, pp. 59–60). Spectral enhancement involves interpreting the light absorbed or reflected to reveal shape, for example, through a color composite (Hough, 1991, p. 62). Other processing may include coordinate transformations, ratio image generation, and temporal enhancement (Hough, 1991, pp. 64–70).
Once IMINT is processed, analyzed, and interpreted, it can be dissemi-
nated to consumers or end users of intelligence. While spy satellites have been critical in such Cold War missions as verifying arms controls agreements and tracking strategic weapons, real-time surveillance remains essential in locating and identifying weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) such as nuclear,
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biological, and chemical weapons (NBC). Real-time applications also provide timely tactical information and intelligence to military units, monitoring of political events of significance (such as riots), tracking terrorist movements and installations, and economic intelligence (such as industrial and agricul-tural information). IMINT can also support law enforcement and surveil-
lance operations, as well as a variety of non-security-related civil functions.
Surveillance Target Acquisition and Night Observation
The term surveil ance target acquisition and night observation (STANO) was first coined by General Westmoreland and represented his perspective of technological innovations in tactical intel igence for the electronic battlefield. The type of equipment included in this field are night vision devices; intrusion detection devices; portable surveil ance radar; laser aiming, ranging, and detecting devices; and specialized optical systems (stabilized optical monoculars and bin-oculars). Photography, of course, is an integral part of surveil ance and photo intel igence (PHOTINT) is an important part of intel igence operations.
Pinhole Cameras
Alternative photography is the practice of any process of photography, where the worker has to make his or her own light-sensitive materials because these are not produced by factories or manufacturers (Figure 10.12).
A pinhole camera is a homemade camera without a lens and with one small aperture. It is basically a light-proof box with a small hole in one side.
Light passes through the aperture hole and projects an inverted image
(upside down) on the opposite side of the box, much as the human eye does.
The smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the dimmer the projected image is. Optimally, the size of the aperture should be 1/100 or less of the distance between it and the projected image. Because a pinhole camera requires a lengthy exposure, its shutte
r may be manually operated, as with a light-proof door or cover to cover and uncover the pinhole. Typical exposures
range from 5 seconds to several hours.
Film paper
Pinhole
Figure 10.12 Pinhole camera.
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The image may be projected onto or exposed to photographic film or a
CCD. Pinhole cameras with CCDs are often used for surveillance because
they are difficult to detect. Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (cellulose acetate, nitrocellulose, polyester, or PET) coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by a gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity, contrast, and resolution. When the emulsion is sufficiently exposed, it forms an invisible image. Chemical processes are applied to develop the visible film image. A CCD is a device for the movement of electrical charge and is a major technology for digital imaging.
Pinhole cameras can be handmade and consists of a light-tight box with
a pinhole in one end and a piece of film or photographic paper (photo paper) at the other end. Photo paper is paper coated with light-sensitive chemicals for making photographic prints. A flap of cardboard with a tape hinge can be used as a shutter. The pinhole may be punched or dril ed using a sewing needle or small diameter bit through a piece of tinfoil or thin metal. This piece is then taped to the inside of the light-tight box behind a hole cut through the box.
Coat paper with KI solution and mix with spent fixer (drying at each
stage, the second stage taking place in subdued lighting) and use as printing-out paper. KI is a precursor to silver iodide (used in photography). KI is a component in some disinfectants and hair treatment chemicals. KI is also
used as a fluorescence quenching agent in biomedical research. It is also used as a nutritional supplement in animal feeds and the human diet as the most common additive used to iodize table salt. Water color paper coated with silver emulsion works, if silver emulsion is available. Leaves, flowers, and fruit juices have been used to make photo paper. Kitchen salt, alcohol, and a sodium bicarbonate or prune juice have reportedly worked (although I have not tried this yet). Each of these takes days to develop.
Biometrics
Biometrics is the new and emerging technology that automatically identifies an individual based on characteristics. It is the science and technology of measuring and analyzing biological data. Location data can be created, linked, stored, and analyzed through the formation of geographic information systems (GIS), GPS, and automatic vehicle locator (AVL) systems. In information technology, biometrics refers to technologies that measure and analyze human body characteristics, such as fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, voice patterns, facial patterns, and hand measurements, for identification and authentication purposes.
The demand for greater security at borders, government buildings, pub-
lic transportation facilities, public venues, and other locations has created greater demand for biometrics—technologies that measure biological traits
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to identify individuals. Systems that digitally fingerprint people, read the patterns of their irises, measure the unique dimensions of their faces, or verify their voices are expected to quadruple over the next 5 years.
There are two classifications of biometric information: (1) physiologi-
cal characteristics and (2) behavioral characteristics. Physiological characteristics include fingerprint, DNA, facial features, eye pattern, and hand geometry. Behavioral characteristics that are unique to people include gait, signature, and voice. Anything that is unique to a person can be converted to a digital format that can be used to differentiate individuals from others.
Biometric information is categorized by use as either (1) access control or (2) remote identification.
Another word for eye pattern is iris recognition. Iris recognition uses
pattern-recognition techniques based on his resolution images of the irides of an individual’s eye. This process, not to be confused with retina scanning, uses digital technology to create detailed images of the intricate structures of the iris. This information is converted into digital templates that create a mathematical interpretation for positive identification.
One of the most controversial biometric applications is FRT. FRT can
acquire digital photographs of an individual’s face to take measurements
between nodal points, which are locations on every human’s face. While
there are about 80 different nodal points, an FRT software algorithm requires only 14–22 points for comparison. Gait is also used to identify individuals by the way they walk. Digital images can be taken by imagery collection devices (fixed cameras, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, etc.), analyzed, and compared for digital patterns.
Voice is a combination of physical and behavioral characteristics that are related to the voice signal patterns. The characteristics of a voice include the vocal tracts, nasal cavity, mouth, and lips. The behavioral characteristics of a voice deal with the speaker’s physical and emotional state. The authentication of a voice is divided into two groups, text-dependent and text- independent methods. Text dependent is when the speakers speak a predetermined
phrase. Text independent does not have any conditions and can be done with any statement.
License Plate Readers
License plate readers (LPRs) can record license plates at about one per second at speeds of up to 100 mph, and they often utilize IR cameras for clarity and to facilitate reading at any time of day or night. The data collected can either be processed in real time, at the site of the read, or it can be transmitted to remote center and processed at a later time.
Internet and Database
Open Sources
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Open-Source Intelligence
Open-source intelligence (OSINT) is derived from the Internet, newspapers, journals, radio and television, etc. Source reliability is one of the major issues of concern with this method of collection. Here, I am providing, among
other things, a collection of websites with databases and other useful information. While I have tried to access these recently and have found them to be sound, web pages come and go daily, so a source I cite may no longer exist when you pull this book off of your crowed shelf a couple of years down the road. Happy hunting!
Intelligence Research Sources
Here are some open sources of intelligence data and research that are very useful. You should probably save these in your Internet favorites: https:/ www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ ( the Central Intel igence Agency World Fact Book)
https:/ www1.nga.mil/GEOINTOnline/Pages/default.aspx (the National
Geo-Spatial Intel igence Agency GEOINT On-Line)
http:/ www.nro.gov/ (the National Reconnaissance Office web page)
http:/ intelweb.janes.com/public/intelweb/index.shtml (Jane’s Defence
and Security Intelligence and Analysis)
http:/ jid.janes.com/public/jid/index.shtml (Jane’s Intelligence Digest)
http://jpr.janes.com/public/jpr/index.shtml (Jane’s Police Digest)
http://www.rand.org/ (the Rand Corporation)
http:/ www.brookings.edu/ (the Brookings Institution)
http://www.hudson.org/ (the Hudson Institute)
http://www.cato.org/ (the Cato Institute)
http://www.heritage.org/ (the Heritage Foundation)
http:/ www.iwp.edu/ (the Institute of World Politics)
http:/ www.eyespymag.com/ ( Eye Spy magazine is a periodical, but of great interest with news and commentary)
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Database Sources of Information
Here are a couple of nifty sources straightaway:
http://www.city-da
ta.com/ (data on demographics, economy, and
crime)
http://www.freebooter.com/ (mail drops, online privacy, identity and
passport sources, diplomatic appointments and titles of nobility, etc.)
http://www.finaid.org/scholarships/maildropsearch.phtml or http://
www.mbe.com/Pages/home.aspx (for more mail drops and mail
boxes)
The investigator’s black book of links to phone directory search tools, investigative and criminal justice organizations, government agencies, and other research sites: http:/ www.pacficnet.net/~blackbook/links.html.
Another database source is Internet Sleuth, with access to more than
1500 databases: http:/ www.isleuth.com.
LexisNexis is a subscription service with specialized databases and
features. Lexis is a legal database, which includes statutes, regulations, case law, Shepard’s Citations, and property records. MEDIS is a source of medical information, such as MEDLINE, JAMA, and Physician Data Query. LEGIS
is a link to congressional bill tracking, vote reports, and campaign contribu-tions. Nexis has information on news and business, including access to nearly 6000 magazines and periodicals, as well as biographies, company profiles, SEC
reports, and other public records:
http:/ www.lexis-nexis.com
http://www.law.cornel .edu/uscode/ (Cornell University’s U.S. Code lookup service)
Fact Checking Intellectual Property and Plagiarism
Intellectual property involves anything that is patented, copyrighted,
or trademarked. Plagiarism involves using someone else’s intellectual
property (such as written material) without permission and citation
(i.e., passing it off as your own when it is someone else’s work or ideas).
Information may be quoted, as long as it is cited, and if large amounts are reproduced, permission must be granted. Photographs and illustrations