by Kalidasa
Doniger, Wendy, with Smith, Brian K. (trans.), The Laws of Manu (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1991).
Figueira, Dorothy Matilda, Translating the Orient: The Reception of Śākuntala in Nineteenth-Century Europe (New York: State University of New York Press, Albany, 1991).
Franklin, Michael J. (ed.), Sir William Jones: Selected Poetical and Prose Works (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1995).
Gerow, Edwin, ‘Plot Structure and the Development of Rasa in the Śakuntalā’, Pts. I and II, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 99:4 (1979), 559–72; 100:3 (1980), 267–82.
——‘Rasa as a Category of Literary Criticism’, in Baumer and Brandon (eds.), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, 226–57.
—— ‘Sanskrit Dramatic Theory and Kālidāsa’s Plays’, in Miller (ed.), Theater of Memory: The Plays of Kālidāsa.
Gitomer, David, ‘The Theater in Kālidāsa’s Art’, in Miller (ed.), Theater of Memory: The Plays of Kālidāsa.
Gnoli, Raniero, The Aesthetic Experience According to Abhinavagupta (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 2nd revised edn. 1968).
Goodwin, Robert E., The Playworld of Sanskrit Drama (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998).
Hardy, F., The Religious Culture of India: Power, Love and Wisdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
Insler, Stanley, ‘The Shattered Head Split and the Epic Tale of Śakuntalā’, Bulletin d’ Études Indiennes, 7–8 (1989–90), 97–139.
Jamison, Stephanie W., Sacrificed Wife/Sacrificer’s Wife: Women, Ritual, and Hospitality in Ancient India (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
Keith, Arthur Berriedale, The Sanskrit Drama in its Origin, Development, Theory and Practice (1st pub. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924; repr. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992).
Kramrisch, Stella, The Presence of Śiva (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).
Miller, Barbara Stoler, ‘Kālidāsa’s World and his Plays’, in B. S. Miller (ed.), Theater of Memory: The Plays of Kālidāsa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1st pub. 1975; repr. 1980).
Raghavan, V., ‘Sanskrit Drama in Performance’, in Baumer and Brandon (eds.), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, 9–44.
Richmond, Farley, ‘Suggestions for Directors of Sanskrit Plays’, in Baumer and Brandon (eds.), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, 74–109.
—— Swann, Darius L., and Zarrilli, Phillip B. (eds.), Indian Theatre: Tradition of Performance (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1990).
Sanderson, Alexis, ‘Purity and Power among the Brahmans of Kashmir’, in M. Carrithers et al. (eds.) The Category of the Person (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 190–216.
—— ‘Trika Śaivism’, in M. Eliade (ed.-in-chief), The Encyclopedia of Religions, vol. 13 (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 15–16.
Stutley, Margaret, and Stutley, James, A Dictionary of Hinduism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977).
van Buitenen, J. A. B. (trans.), Two Plays of Ancient India (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1968). Contains ‘The Little Clay Cart’ by Śūdraka and ‘The Minister’s Seal’ by Viśākhadatta.
Further Reading in Oxford World’s Classics
Bhagavad Gita, trans, and ed. W. J. Johnson.
The Pañcatantra, trans, and ed. Patrick Olivelle.
The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahābhārata, trans. W. J. Johnson.
NOTE ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF SANSKRIT WORDS
The following may act as an approximate guide, but for detailed information on the pronunciation of Sanskrit the reader should consult a work such as Michael Coulson’s Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language. In the Introduction and Explanatory Notes some terms have been anglicized: ‘brahmin’ for brāhman (a priest), and so ‘Brahminical’ instead of ‘Brahmanical’, and so on.
Sanskrit
as in English
a
cut
ā
far
i
sit
ī
me
u
put
ū
too
rṣ
risk
e
pray
ai
Sigh
o
hope
au
sound
c
church
v
close to the English w
ś
shame
ṣ
dish
ḥ
as in English but with a faint echo of the preceding vowel
ṭ etc.
as in English, but with the tongue further back in the mouth
ṅ, ṇ
have a nasal quality
ñ,
canyon
kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph, bh
aspirated—as in ‘hothouse’, (not ‘with’), ‘shepherd’, clubhouse’, etc.
ṃ
nasalizes the preceding vowel sound, as in French bon
THE RECOGNITION OF ŚAKUNTALĀ
A Play in Seven Acts
THE CHARACTERS OF THE PLAY
IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE
S = Sanskrit speaker; P = Prakrit speaker
Actor-Manager (S)
manager and director of the company; may play the hero
Actress (P)
wife of the Actor-Manager; plays the heroine
Driver (S)
the king’s charioteer and companion
King Duṣyanta (S)
the hero (nāyaka); king of the lunar dynasty of Puru
Vaikhānasa (S)
a more solitary type of forest-dwelling ascetic; follower of KAṆVA
Two Ascetics (S)
pupils of KAṆVA
Śakuntalā (P)
the heroine (nāyikā); daughter of the royal sage Viśvāmitra and the nymph Menakā; foster-daughter of the ascetic KAṆVA
Anasūyā (P)
young female ascetic; friend of Śakuntalā; her name means ‘without envy’
Priyaṃvadā (P)
young female ascetic; friend of Śakuntalā; her name means ‘sweet talker’
Ascetic (off-stage) (S)
follower of KAṆVA
Vidūṣaka (Mādhavya) (P)
overweight brahmin; friend and confidant of the king
Attendants (P)
the king’s female bow-bearers/bodyguards
Doorkeeper (Raivataka) (P)
General (S)
commander of the king’s army
Two Seers (S)
young ascetics in Kaṇva’s hermitage
Karabhaka (P)
royal messenger
Assistant Sacrificer (S)
follower of KAṆVA
Gautamī (P)
senior female ascetic
Voice in the Air (Act 3) (S)
Durvāsas (off-stage) (S)
powerful and irascible ascetic
Pupil (Viṣkambhaka) (S)
pupil of KAṆVA
Ascetic (off-stage) (S)
follower of KAṆVA
Three Hermit Women (P)
female ascetics in Kaṇva’s hermitage
First Young Ascetic (Nārada) (S)
follower of KAṆVA
Second Young Ascetic (S)
follower of KAṆVA
KAṆVA (S)
brahmin sage; head of the forest hermitage; Śakuntalā’s foster-father; also known as Kāśyapa
Śārṅgarava (S)
ascetic; follower of KAṆVA
Voice in the Air (Act 4) (S)
Voice (Haṃsapadikā) (P)
one of Duṣyanta’s consorts
Chamberlain (Vātāyana) (S)
chief officer of the royal household
Doorkeeper (Vetravatī) (P)
female attendant.
Two Bards (off-stage) (S)
Āāradvata (S)
ascetic; follower of KAṆVA
Court Priest (Preceptor Somarāta) (S)
Two Policemen (P)
Chief of Police (Mitrāvasu) (P)
the king’s brother-in-law
Man (P)
a fisherman
Sānumatī (P)
a nymph; friend of Śakuntalā’s mother Menakā
First Gardener (Parabhṛtikā—
‘Little Cuckoo’) (P)
Second Gardener (Madhukarikā—
‘Little Bee’) (P)
Caturikā (P)
maidservant.
Bowbearer (P)
female attendant
Mātali (S)
charioteer of Indra, king of the gods
Boy (Sarvadamana) (P)
son of Śakuntalā and Duṣyanta; afterwards known as Bharata
Two Female Ascetics (P)
Mārīca (S)
divine sage; head of the celestial hermitage; father of Indra, king of the gods
Aditi (P)
Mārīca’s wife.
Pupil (Gālava) (S)
pupil of Mārīca
Because of the structure of the play (see the Introduction), many of these characters could be creatively doubled (played by the same actors) in production, for example, the two charioteers; KAṆVA and Mārīca; Gautamī and Aditi; and others.
PROLOGUE
Benediction.*
Through the Creator’s Through the ritual oblations’s transport—fire,
Through the chanting priest—the reciter,
Through those twin chronometers—moon and solar fire,
Through the echoing vault of reverberating ether,
Through primal matter—Earth—all-seeding mother,
Through pure air, breath of the living breather,
Through these eight palpable embodiments of the great Lord Śiva,*
May the great Lord Himself be your protector.
[After the benediction
ACTOR-MANAGER [looking towards the curtain*]. Angel, if you’ve finished making-up, come and join me out here.
ACTRESS [entering]. Here I am, darling.
ACTOR-MANAGER. Dearest, we’ve got a highbrow—well, a mostly highbrow audience in tonight, and we’re giving them a romance with a new plot, strung together by Kālidāsa—The Recognition of Śakuntalā. So the actors need to be on top form.
ACTRESS. Don’t worry, darling. You’ve rehearsed the piece so well, we’ll be word perfect, and the audience will be all ears and eyes.
ACTOR-MANAGER. I’ll tell you the truth, angel:
It’s only when the cognoscenti applaud— (2)
And only then—a director can afford
To believe he’s master of his craft.
Even the most devout
And highly trained practitioners
Feel self-doubt.
ACTRESS. That’s so true, darling. Now, tell me, dear, what was it you wanted me to do?
ACTOR-MANAGER. What else but put the audience in the mood with a soothing song. So sing about the summer that’s As the dusty body floats in the cooling stream, (3)
The days are changed by dusk to strange delight—
Days of easy sleep in wooded depths,
Days stirred and drugged by scented breeze—
The breathing forest
Fragrant with bignonia leaves.
ACTRESS. If that’s what you’d like. [She sings
The mimosa has a blossom—delicate, exquisite— (4)
A stamen gently brushed by black woodland bees.
And lovely youthful women—so delicate, exquisite—
Wear its blossoms in their ears
Where they tremble in the breeze.
ACTOR-MANAGER. Beautifully sung, darling! As though in a painting, the entire audience has had their emotion coloured by your melody. So, now—what shall we perform to sustain the mood?
ACTRESS. If you don’t mind me saying so, dearest, haven’t you already announced that Śakuntalā is the play to be performed?
ACTOR-MANAGER. What would I do without you, darling! Just for a moment I’d completely forgotten that. But only because:
Your captivating, full-impassioned song (5)
Ravished me with force, and carried me away—*
Just as the headlong rush of a spotted deer
Carries this king, Duṣyanta,* into our play.
[Exit ACTOR-MANAGER and ACTRESS
ACT 1
Enter, on a chariot, the KING, holding a bow, with an arrow in his hand, and his DRIVER, in pursuit of a deer.
DRIVER [glancing from the king to the deer]. Ageless Lord!
Glancing from that black-buck to you, bow drawn, (6)
I see Śiva himself, in human form,
Pursuing the chase.*
KING. Driver, that deer has drawn us far enough. Even now:
He ever turns to see our chariot in pursuit (7)
Arching his tender neck, his body like a blade
Bent point to scabbard to evade
My homing shaft.
From his mouth, fatigue agape,
Foam-flecked, half-chewed,
Darbha grass* has strewed
His wake.
See! There he is—so great his soaring bound
He travels more by air than lumpen ground.
[In sudden bewilderment] But why now can I barely see him, though I was in close pursuit?
DRIVER. My Lord, the ground was uneven, so I drew in the reins and slackened the chariot’s speed. But now we’re on the flat again, he’ll not be difficult to catch.
KING. Then release the reins.
DRIVER. As you command my king. [Miming the increased speed of the chariot] Look, look, my lord!
Their reins relaxed, these horses start to race, (8)
Frustration at the deer’s speed whips up their pace,
Their ears are pricked, their plumes no longer shake,
Their bodies thrust the air apart, their wake
Is thunder; in our tracks they leave for dust
The very dust they raised …
KING. It’s true—better than the horses of the sun, or Indra’s steeds,* our stallions surge ahead.
What seemed minute, suddenly fills my sight, (9)
And broken halves and fragments now unite.
The skewed ways of nature are, through the eye,
Made straight—nothing is far from me or nigh,
So swiftly does this chariot take its flight.
Driver—watch it die!
[He takes aim with an arrow
A VOICE OFF-STAGE. King! Don’t shoot! Don’t kill him! This deer belongs to the hermitage!
DRIVER [hearing the voice and looking around]. My lord, some ascetics have planted themselves between the black-buck and you, right in the flight-path of your arrow.
KING [urgently]. Then rein in the horses!
DRIVER. At once. [He brings the chariot to a halt
Enter VAIKHĀNASA with TWO ASCETICS (his pupils).
VAIKHĀNASA [holding up his hand]. King, this is a hermitage deer. You should not—you must not kill it!
Indeed, indeed, no missile should be shot, (10)
Scorching, like a flame through velvet petals,
This young fawn’s tender head.
Alas, what is the filigree life,
In this poor animal’s frame,
Beside the adamantine rain
Of bowshot?
Drop your deadly arrow’s aim—yours is an arm (11)
To defend the oppressed, not do them harm.
KING. It is withdrawn. [He is as good as his word
VAIKHĀNASA. This is worthy of the light of Puru’s race.*
Great Lord of the Lunar Dynasty,* (12)
May you have a son
With all your virtues,
Destined to rule the world.*
TWO ASCETICS [raising their forearms in salutation]. Yes! May you have a son destined to rule the world.
KING [with a bow]
. The blessings of a brahmin are always accepted.
VAIKHĀNASA. Great king, we were on our way to collect wood for the sacrificial fire. There, on the banks of the Mālinī river, is the venerable Kaṇva’s hermitage. If it isn’t a distraction, go in, and receive the hospitality due to a guest. And
Once you’ve seen the beautiful rites the ascetics perform, (13)
Free of all disruption,
You’ll realize, then, how far your own bow-scarified arm,
Reaches to give protection.
KING. Is the sage now at home?
VAIKHĀNASA. Not long ago he left his daughter Śakuntalā to look after his guests, and went himself to Somatīrtha to appease the gods on her behalf, and avert her hostile fate.*
KING. Well then! I’ll see her instead. No doubt she’ll tell the great sage how I’ve made my devotions.
VAIKHĀNASA. We’ll go on now.
[Exit VAIKHĀNASA and the TWO ASCETICS
KING. Driver, whip up the horses! Let’s purify ourselves with the sight of this holy hermitage.
DRIVER. As your lordship commands.
[He mimes the movement of the chariot again
KING [looking around]. Even if we hadn’t been told, it would be obvious we’re on the outskirts of the hermitage’s ascetic-groves.