by Max Wheeler
herbicida (m.) weed killer raticida (m.) rat poison
insecticida (m.) insecticide etc.
1.2.1.3 Unexpected masculine nouns in -a
There are a few other non-human nouns ending in -a which are of masculine gender. Firstly some exotic animals:
equidna (m.) spiny anteater puma(m.) puma
goril·la (m.) gorilla tamàndua (m.) lesser anteater
llama (m.) llama
The remainder are semantically miscellaneous:
abracadabra (m.) abracadabra
afores (m.pl.) outskirts
al·leluia (m.) Hallelujah/Alleluia
bocabarra (m.) cavity in windlass for inserting lever
clima (m.) climate
còlera (m.) cholera
cometa (m.) comet
cremallera (m.) rack railway
delta (m.) delta
dia (m.) day
migdia (m.) midday
gàmeta (m.) gamete
glòria (m.) the Gloria (of the Mass) (glòria otherwise feminine)
hosanna (m.) Hosanna
ioga (m.) yoga
mapa (m.) map
nirvana (m.) nirvana
passa-passa (m.) sleight of hand
pijama (m.) pyjamas; Neapolitan ice-cream
planeta (m.) planet
quilowatt-hora (m.) kilowatt-hour
terra (m.) ground, floor
titella (m.) puppet
tramvia (m.) tram
visca (m.) cheer, cry of ‘visca!’
1.2.2 Gender of Nouns Ending other than in -a
Nouns which end in anything except unstressed -a are typically masculine, for example: ferro (m.) ‘iron’, sofà (m.) ‘sofa’, gra (m.) ‘grain’, judici (m.) ‘judgement’, mitjó (m.) ‘sock’, segle (m.) ‘century’, te (m.) ‘tea’, tipus (m.) ‘type’, tret (m.) ‘feature’, and so on.
1.2.2.1. Feminines in -O
The ending -o is regarded as a prototypically masculine one: in fact it occurs as a specific masculine gender marker in certain nouns and adjectives like amo (m.) ‘master’, maco (m.) ‘handsome’, ‘pretty’, fondo (m.) ‘deep’, and in masculine noun and adjective plurals like discos ‘records’, feliços ‘happy (m.pl.)’. There are very few feminine nouns ending in -o: the following is a complete list:
dinamo (f.) dynamo
foto (f.) photo
Gestapo (f.) Gestapo
libido (f.) libido
magneto (f.) magneto
moto (f.) motorbike
pòlio (f.) polio
ràdio (f.) radio
soprano (f.) soprano
Unesco (f.) Unesco
1.2.2.2 Typical feminine endings other than -a
There are a score or so of word endings other than -a which are nearly always feminine (V stands for any vowel, C for any consonant): -tud, -VCide, -ie, -cele, -ole, -si (not -ssi), -xi, -ció, -nió, -sió, -tió, -xió, -lis, -tis, -edat, -etat, -itat, -ltat. Words with these endings are nearly always abstract nouns. Where there are exceptions, the words which are masculine, despite these endings, tend to be concrete nouns. We give a couple of examples of each:
-tud
altitud (f.) altitude inquietud (f.) worry
etc. (no exceptions)
-VCide
piràmide (f.) pyramid probòscide (f.) proboscis
etc. (two exceptions: àpside (m.) ‘apsis’, ràfide (m.) ‘raphide’)
-ie
sèrie (f.) series superfície (f.) surface
etc. (no exceptions)
-cele
hidrocele (f.) hydrocele varicocele (f.) varicocele
etc. (no exceptions)
-ole
hipèrbole (f.) hyperbole prole (f.) progeny
etc. (no exceptions)
-si (not -ssi)
catarsi (f.)dosi (f.) catharsisdose hipòtesi (f.) hypothesis
etc. (nine exceptions: cesi (m.) ‘caesium’, dicasi (m.) ‘dichasium’, èxtasi (m.) ‘ecstasy’, Gènesi (m.) ‘(the book of) Genesis’, indusi (m.) ‘indusium’, magnesi (m.) ‘magnesium’, oasi (m.) ‘oasis’, parèntesi (m.) ‘parenthesis’, ‘round bracket’, prasi (m.) ‘prase’)
-xi
profilaxi (f.) prophylaxis sintaxi (f.) syntax
etc. (one exception: taxi (m.) ‘taxi’)
-ció
acció (f.) action, share nació (f.) nation
etc. (very numerous, but there is one exception: alció (m.) ‘halcyon’, ‘kingfisher’)
-nió
unió (f.) union comunió (f.) communion
etc. (one exception: anió (m.) ‘anion’)
-sió
concessió (f.) award inclusió (f.) inclusion
etc. (very numerous, no exceptions)
-tió
digestió (f.) digestion qüestió (f.) question, issue
etc. (four exceptions: bastió (m.) ‘bastion’, catió (m.) ‘cation’, llantió (m.) ‘fairy light’, tió (m.) ‘burning log’)
-xió
reflexió (f.) reflection connexió (f.) connection
etc. (no exceptions)
-lis
bilis (f.) bile sífilis (f.) syphilis
etc. (four exceptions: melis (m.) (a kind of resinous pinewood), pròpolis (m.) ‘propolis’, ‘bee glue’, rosolis (m.) ‘rosolio’, xeflis (m.) ‘feast’)
-tis
diabetis (f.) diabetes artritis (f.) arthritis
and many others, mostly inflammations or diseases. (There are five exceptions: cutis (m.) ‘cutis’, ‘complexion’, frontis (m.) ‘façade’, hidrastis (m.) ‘hydrastis’, mutis (m.) ‘(stage) exit’, plumetis (m.) (type of cotton cloth)
-edat
netedat (f.) cleanness fosquedat (f.) darkness
etc. (three exceptions: emparedat (m.) ‘sandwich (British style)’, refredat (m.) ‘cold’ (affliction), vedat (m.) ‘preserve’)
-etat
varietat (f.) variety seguretat (f.) security
etc. (three exceptions: acetat (m.) ‘acetate’, emboetat (m.) ‘tongue-and-groove boarding’, empaquetat (m.) ‘pack(ag)ing’)
-itat
meitat (f.) half veritat (f.) truth
etc., very numerous examples, largely abstract nouns derived from adjectives: e.g. intensitat ‘intensity’, impossibilitat ‘impossibility’. (There are five exceptions: acolitat (m.) ‘rank of acolyte’, hàbitat (m.) ‘habitat’, palmitat (m.) ‘palmitate’, precipitat (m.) ‘precipitate’, recitat (m.) ‘recitative’.)
-ltat
lleialtat (f.) loyalty facultat (f.) faculty
etc. (one exception: resultat (m.) ‘result’)
1.2.2.3 Less Predictable Endings
Certain other frequent word endings are less predictably assignable to one gender or the other.
Nouns in -al
There are some 340 nouns ending in -al, of which 77 per cent are masculine. Among the commonest feminine ones are:
canal (f.) channel, gutter, and see 1.2.4.
capital (f.) capital (city), and see 1.2.4.
catedral (f.) cathedral
central (f.) head office, power station
editorial (f.) publisher, publishing house, and see 1.2.4.
espiral (f.) spiral
moral (f.) morality
postal (f.) postcard
sal (f.) salt
sucursal (f.) branch (office)
terminal (f.) terminal building
vocal (f.) vowel, and see 1.2.4
etc.
Nouns in -Oide
There are in the Diccionari General de la Llengua Catalana about fifty-six nouns, of a technical nature, ending in -oide of which about 75 per cent are masculine, including cel·luloide (m.) ‘celluloid’ and solenoide (m.) ‘solenoid’. Among the feminines are hemorroide (f.) ‘haemorrhoid’ and sinusoide (f.) ‘sine curve’. (-oide is also an adjective ending; many -oide nouns are substantivized adjectives, for example, with ellipsis of the head noun who
se identity (or gender) may no longer be evident.)
Nouns in -or
The gender of the numerous nouns with two or more syllables ending in -or depends to a considerable extent on their meaning or derivation.
(i) Nouns ending in -or denoting animals or concrete objects are for the most part masculine: castor (m.) ‘beaver’, decor (m.) ‘decor’, ‘decoration’, encenedor (m.) ‘lighter’, licor (m.) ‘liqueur’, motor (m.) ‘motor’, ‘engine’, obrador (m.) ‘workbench’, païdor (m.) ‘stomach’, retrovisor (m.) ‘rear-view mirror’, tambor (m.) ‘drum’, tumor (m.) ‘tumour’, voltor (m.) ‘vulture’, and so on.
But three concrete nouns in -or are feminine:
llavor (f.) seed volior (f.) flock of birds in flight
llacor (f.) sludge
(ii) Abstract nouns derived from verb stems with the suffix -or are feminine, for example:
escalfor (f.) warmth (from escalfar ‘warm’)
picor (f.) itch (from picar ‘itch’)
pudor(f.) stink (from pudir ‘stink’)
suor(f.) sweat (from suar ‘sweat’)
tardor (f.) autumn (from tardar ‘be late’)
coïssor (f.). burning feeling (irregular derivative of coure ‘sting’, ‘burn’)
etc.
There are a few exceptions: tremolor (m.) ‘trembling’ is masculine (cf. tremolar ‘tremble’); clamor (m. or f.) ‘shout’, ‘outcry’ (cf. clamar), temor (m. or f.) ‘fear’ (cf. témer), valor (m. or f.) ‘value’ (cf. valer) resemble the more usual non-derived abstract -or nouns (see v(c) below) in being usually masculine, though they may also be feminine.
(iii) Likewise, abstract nouns derived from adjectives with the suffix -or are feminine:
claror (f.) light (from clar)
dolçor (f.) sweetness (from dolç)
frescor (f.) freshness (from fresc)
morenor (f.) darkness of complexion (from moreno/morè)
etc.
(iv) There are also a few such feminine abstract nouns derived from other nouns:
avior (f.) ancestry, antiquity (from avi ‘grandfather’)
bafor or bavor (f.) whiff (from baf ‘(bad) breath’)
borinor (f.) distant thunder, hum (from borinot ‘bumble bee’)
germanor (f.) brotherhood (from germà ‘brother’)
verinor (f.) poisonousness (from verí ‘poison’)
(v) Non-derived abstract nouns ending in -or fall into three groups:
(a) A few are always masculine:
enyor (m.) longing
factor (m.) factor
pudor (m.) shame (not = pudor (f.) ‘stink’)
vector (m.) vector
(b) Several are always feminine; these include words which denote smells (mostly unpleasant), and words associated with atmospheric heat:
bovor (f.) sultriness, stuffiness
calor (f.) heat
fetor (f.) putrid smell
fortor (f.) stench
olor (f.) smell
xafogor (f.) closeness, sultriness
xardor (f.) stifling heat
and the following miscellaneous ones:
albor (f.) whiteness, dawn light (not = albor (m.) (a freshwater fish))
esplendor (f.) splendour
resplendor (f.) radiance
rabior (f.) itch, stinging
bonior (f.) buzz, hum
remor (f.) murmur, rustle
torpor (f.) torpor
(c) The third group includes some very common abstract nouns, which may be feminine, but are predominantly masculine in current prose usage:
amor (m./f.) love
desamor (m./f.) indifference
ardor (m./f.) zeal
candor (m./f.) candour, guilelessness
color (m./f.) colour
dolor (m./f.) pain
error (m./f.) error
estridor (m./f.) raucousness
estupor (m./f.) stupor
favor (m./f.) favour
desfavor (m./f.) disagreeableness
fervor (m./f.) fervour
fragor (m./f.) din
fulgor (m./f.) glow
furor (m./f.) fury
honor (m./f.) honour
horror (m./f) horror
humor (m./f.) humour
rancor (m./f) rancour, grudge
rigor (m./f.) rigour
rubor (m./f.) blush
rumor (m./f.) rumour
sabor (m./f.) taste
dessabor (m./f.) tastelessness
sopor (m./f.) drowsiness
terror (m./f) terror
vigor (m./f.) vitality
(en vigor ‘in force’, ‘in effect’)
xamor (m./f.) charm
Note, with reference to abstract nouns ending in -or, that except in Valencian the final -r is usually silent in feminine nouns but pronounced in masculine ones.
1.2.2.4 Other unexpectedly feminine nouns
There remain over 250 feminine nouns which do not end in unstressed -a, and which are not covered by the principles mentioned so far (1.2.2.1–3). The names of the letters of the alphabet: a, be, ce, de, etc. are feminine, including xeix, the name for the letter x when it sounds ‘sh’; likewise the letters of the Greek alphabet: alfa ‘alpha’, to omega. (Notes of the scale, however, are masculine: do, re, mi, and so on.)
The majority of the remainder of ‘exceptionally feminine’ nouns are everyday, or fairly common, words, though a few are technical terms from rhetoric, botany, and so on. The following list includes the commonest words, in alphabetical order.
allau or llau avalanche
amistat friendship
anemone anemone
arrel or rel root
art art
base basis
beixamel bechamel
bici bike
bondat goodness
breu breve
calç lime
cançó song
carn meat, flesh
catàstrofe catastrophe
cicatriu scar
circular circular
ciutat city
classe class, kind
clau key (not = clau (m.) ‘nail’)
clímax (also m.) climax
col cabbage
coliflor cauliflower
consonant consonant
constant constant
cort court, sty
creu cross
cristiandat Christendom
dent tooth
deu spring, source
el·lipse ellipse
enemistat enmity
falç sickle
fam hunger
fase phase, stage
fe faith
febre fever
fi end (not = fi (m.) ‘objective’)
flor flower
font spring, fountain
frase phrase, clause
gent people
germandat fraternity, sisterhood
gla acorn
grip (also m.) influenza
guineu fox
hèlice spiral, propeller
higiene hygiene
imatge image
imperdible (also m.) safety-pin
invariant invariant
joventut youth
lent lens
llar home, fireplace
llebre hare
llei law
llet milk
llibertat liberty
lliçó lesson
llum light (not = llum (m.) ‘lamp’)
mà hand
majestat majesty
maldat wickedness
mar (also m.) sea
marató marathon
matriu womb
mel honey
ment mind
mercè favour, benefit
metròpoli metropolis
molar molar
mort death
mortaldat death toll
nau ship
neu snow
nit night
nou nut, walnut
oblivió oblivion
ordre
order, command
orfandat orphanhood
paret wall
part part
patent patent
patum (figure representing a fabulous animal, which is paraded through the streets during popular festivals), big shot
pell skin
pelvis pelvis
perdiu partridge
pols dust (not = pols (m.) ‘pulse’)
por fear
post plank, ironing board
potestat authority, jurisdiction
presó prison
processó (religious) procession
psique psyche
pubertat puberty
raó reason
rebel·lió rebellion
sal salt
salt health (not = salut (m.) ‘greeting’)
sang blood
serp snake
set thirst
seu cathedral
síndrome syndrome
son sleepiness
sort luck
talent appetite (not = talent (m.) ‘skill, gift’)
tele television, telly
tempestat storm
Tet (river in North Catalonia)
torre tower
tos cough
tribu tribe
vall valley (not = vail (m.) ‘trench’)
variable variable
variant variant
veu voice (note altaveu (m.) ‘loudspeaker’)
virtut virtue
voluntat will
voluptat sensual pleasure
1.2.3 THE GENDER OF COMPOUND NOUNS
1.2.3.7 Verb + noun compounds
A frequent type of compound is that composed of a verb and a noun, referring to the person or animal or plant that does such-and-such, or the instrument with which it is done. The important point to bear in mind is that the gender of the compound is not normally related to the gender of the noun it contains. Those that denote humans can, as usual, be of either gender (1.1). The remainder are masculine, such as:
eixugamà (m.) hand-towel
enganyabadocs (m.) booby-trap
escuradents (m.) toothpick
passaport (m.) passport
picaporta (m.) door-knocker
portamonedes (m.) purse
rentamans (m.) washbasin
rentaplats (m.) dishwasher
xuclamel (m.) honeysuckle
etc.
There are a very few exceptions, in all of which the included noun element is itself feminine singular in -a, where the whole compound is feminine, such as: