by Max Wheeler
No, no hi és, en Pere. No, Pere’s not in.
En Pere hi és. Pere is there./There is Pere./Pere is in.
Vaig buscar les maletes però no hi eren. I looked for the cases but they weren’t there.
Els documents? Sí que hi són. The documents? Yes, they are there.
Ser-hi must also be used with first- and second-person pronouns:
Aquí, només hi som nosaltres. There is only us here.
Ser can be used alone without any complement in the sense ‘be so’, ‘be the case’ (see 25.2.2):
No pot ser. It can’t be so.
No és que jo ho dubti. It’s not (the case) that I doubt it.
Estar can be used alone in the sense ‘stop’ (usually imperative), or ‘be ready’ (usually present); note also estar-se de + infinitive ‘refrain from’:
Per nosaltres no estigueu. Don’t mind us./Don’t stop on our account.
Ja estàs? Are you ready?/Have you finished?
No s’estan mai de dir-nos-ho. They never stop telling us.
No em sé estar de dir … I just have to say …/I can’t help saying.
30.2 COPULA PREDICATES: IDENTITY, SET MEMBERSHIP
To express identity or set membership when the complement is a noun phrase (or infinitive), or a prepositional phrase with de indicating origin, possession, membership, material, etc., ser is used. Note that noun phrase complements indicating profession have no article in Catalan (indefinite article in English, see 3.2.3).
Això és la mort per a ell. That is death to him.
L’única solució era fer-la fora. The only solution was to sack her.
El seu oncle és el metge del poble. Her uncle is the village doctor.
La Marta era mestra d’escola. Marta was a primary-school teacher (by profession).
Aquestes bicicletes són dels veïns. These bicycles belong to the neighbours.
Són de Catalunya Nord. They are from North Catalonia.
Jo no era de la colla. I wasn’t (one) of the group.
El teixit és de llana. The fabric is of wool.
30.3 COPULA PREDICATES: LOCATION, TIME
Valencian speakers spontaneously use estar in any location/time expression; this usage is also increasingly common elsewhere but is regarded as nonstandard. The standard language reflects the usage of more conservative speakers in maintaining a distinction between mere location (ser) and location explicitly extended over time (estar). This is illustrated in the following examples, where estar might also be translated as ‘stay’:
Les vaques eren a l’establa.
The cows were in the cowshed.
Reus és prop de Tarragona.
Reus is near Tarragona.
On són les claus?
Where are the keys?
La reunió serà a les deu en punt.
The meeting will be at 10 o’clock prompt.
Aviat serem a Girona; hi estarem tres hores.
We shall soon be in Girona; we shall stay there for three hours.
Tota aquella tarda estigueren a la piscina.
All that afternoon they were at the pool.
Estigues a la plaça fins que jo hi sigui i et rellevi
Stay in the square until I am there to (lit. and) relieve you.
With animate subjects estar, or more often estar-se, is used in the sense of ‘reside’, and also ‘work’:
En Pere ara (s’)està al carrer de Provença.
Now Pere lives on the carrer de Provença.
Quan vaig a París sempre (m)’estic a l’hotel «Georges V».
When I go to Paris I always stay in the ‘Georges V’.
La Joana (s’)està a la Renault
Joana works at/for Renault.
30.4 ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS OF ‘BE’
When the complement of ‘be’ is an adverb, or a prepositional phrase which does not denote a location (and is not one of the de phrases mentioned in 30.2), then the copular verb used is estar.
–Com estàs? -Estic molt bé. ‘How are you?’ ‘I’m very well.’
Aquesta suma no està bé. This sum isn’t right.
Avui el bacallà no està a l’abast de tothom. Nowadays cod is not within everybody’s reach.
El segon volum ja està a la venda. Volume two is now availablelon sale.
En Ramon està en coma a la Delfos.. Ramon is in a coma at the Delfos clinic.
Jo hi estic en contra. I’m against it.
In colloquial usage estar bé frequently is the equivalent of ser bo ‘be good’.
Ha fet unes caricatures que estan molt bé. (= unes caricatures (que són) molt bones)
She’s done some caricatures which are very good.
30.5 COPULA WITH ADJECTIVAL OR PARTICIPIAL COMPLEMENTS
We have discussed in 29.1 the passive construction involving ser/ésser ‘be’ + the participle of a transitive verb. In 21.1 we touched on the pattern in which ser occurs with a participle used adjectivally (stative sense), as in La seva cara m’era desconeguda ‘Her face was unknown to me’. It is uses like the latter which we discuss more fully here, along with the predicative use of adjectives: La seva cara era/estava blanca ‘Her face was white’.
With adjectival or participial complements both ser and estar are used; often (but not always) with an important difference of meaning where there is a choice. We need to start by distinguishing between animate subjects (30.5.1) and inanimate ones (30.5.2).
30.5.1 ANIMATE SUBJECTS WITH ADJECTIVAL OR PARTICIPIAL COMPLEMENTS
With an animate subject and an adjective or participle complement, estar is used to indicate that a quality is contingent, temporary, the result of some change, and so on. Ser indicates essential, defining, or (relatively) permanent qualities.
Estaven contents del nou horari. They were pleased with the new timetable.
Estarem asseguts durant el discurs. We shall be sitting down (i.e. seated) during the speech.
Estem morts de gana. We are starving (hungry).
Després de la malaltia l’àvia estava dèbil i nerviosa. After her illness grandmother was weak and nervous.
El poeta era dèbil i nerviós. The poet was weak and nervous by nature).
En Tomeu és alt, ros, i fort de cames. Tomeu is tall, fair, and strong-legged.
Tu ets més madur que jo. You are older than I am.
Other adjectives, like dèbil and nerviós in the examples above, where a distinction of meaning accompanies the choice between ser and estar, are: alegre ‘cheerful’, feliç ‘happy’/‘fortunate’, trist ‘sad’, tranquil ‘calm’, quiet ‘placid’, elegant ‘smart’, prim ‘thin’/‘slim’, and so on.
The adjectives viu ‘alive’ and mort ‘dead’ (in their literal senses), jove ‘young’, vell ‘old’, casat ‘married’, solter ‘unmarried’, vidu/viudo ‘widowed’, calb ‘bald’, coix ‘lame’, and other adjectives denoting physical defects/disabilities, were traditionally constructed with ser (regarding these qualities as essentially permanent or definitional), but in contemporary usage they are also often found with estar.
The following adjectives, which inherently denote temporary or changeable states, are normally used with estar: animat ‘lively’, refredat (estar refredat = ‘have a cold’), capacitat ‘trained’, ‘prepared’, exempt ‘exempt’, satisfet ‘satisfied’, gras ‘fat’, bo ‘well’ (ser bo = ‘be good’), sa ‘well’, ‘healthy’, malalt ‘ill’. (Observe the difference between Na Miquela està sana ‘Miquela is well’ and Caminar és sa ‘Walking is healthy’.)
The choice between estar and ser does not always reflect the semantic distinction mentioned between contingent and essential properties, but may be determined by specific lexical items. So note it is always ser conscient ‘be conscious’, ‘realize’, and usually ser present ‘be present’. With estar the adjective llest means ‘ready’, ‘prepared’; with ser it means ‘intelligent’, ‘quick-witted’:
Si en Jaume està llest, engegaré el motor. If Jaume is ready, I’ll start the engine.
&nbs
p; En Jaume és llest i pràctic. Jaume is clever and practical.
30.5.2 INANIMATE SUBJECTS WITH ADJECTIVAL OR PARTICIPIAL COMPLEMENTS
In the case of an inanimate subject and an adjective or participle complement, the traditional norm was to use ser, without regard to the distinction between contingent and essential, mentioned above (30.5.1).
L’aigua és bruta. The water is dirty.
La sopa és freda. The soup is cold.
El raïm ja és madur. The grapes are ripe now.
Estar could also be used, either with participles, especially where the use of ser might suggest a passive construction, or in the sense ‘stay’, especially when a length of time is specified or suggested.
Participles:
El gerro està/és trencat.
The jug is broken.
Les cases estaven abandonades
The houses were abandoned/were in an abandoned state.
(Compare: Les cases eren abandonades The houses were abandoned/were being abandoned’, see 21.1.)
Length of time:
La casa està bruta, perquè no la netegen mai.
The house is dirty, because it is never cleaned.
La seva imatge estava sempre present en la seva ànima
His image was always present in her mind.
Participle/length of time:
El restaurant estarà tancat tot el mes d’agost.
The restaurant will be closed throughout August.
Durant una setmana la circulació per carretera estigué interrompuda
For a week communication by road was cut.
Contemporary usage, however, tends in the direction of applying the same contingent/essential distinction with inanimate subjects as with animate ones, permitting contrasts such as the following to be made:
Aquests gelats són molt bons.
These ice creams are very good (i.e. a good type, a good brand, a good quality product).
Aquests gelats estan molt bons.
These ice creams are very good (i.e. are tasty, as shown by immediate experience).
El pal de llum és tort.
The lamp stand is (of a) twisted (design).
El pal de llum està tort
The lamp stand is twisted (sc. as a result of damage).
According to this pattern the first three examples of 30.5.2 would be L’aigua està bruta, La sopa està freda, El raïm ja està madur. However, some grammarians who are generally disposed to tolerate estar with inanimate subjects still reject its use with adjectives such as fred ‘cold’, calent ‘hot’ when their appropriateness depends on sensory experience.
Other writers defend as genuine (and thus standard) the use of estar with inanimate subjects, contrasting with ser, in contexts where the quality attributed is produced deliberately:
El safareig és ple
The sink is full, (just happens to be so)
El safareig ja està ple
The sink is now full. (Someone has been filling it and their intention is now achieved.)
L’hotel serà buit aquest estiu
The hotel will be empty this summer, (mere prediction)
L’hotel estarà buit aquest estiu
The hotel will be empty this summer, (on purpose)
It would be unwise, though, to assume such a distinction is intended, in the absence of other supporting evidence.
30.6 VERBS TRANSLATING ‘BECOME’
There is no single Catalan verb that translates English ‘become’. Apart from the lexical intransitive verbs which have an inchoative component (such as enrogallar-se ‘become hoarse’, aclarir-se ‘become brighter’, see 23.5), the following verbs (most, but not all of them pronominal) correspond to various aspects and nuances of the single English verb:
(i) Esdevenir
Esdevenir ‘become’ can take either a noun or an adjective as complement:
L’aneguet lleig esdevingué cigne.
The ugly duckling became a swan.
Molts pobres esdevindran immensament rics
Many poor people will become immensely rich.
(In its pronominal form, esdevenir-se means ‘happen’, ‘take place’:
Això s’esdevingué fa més de vint anys
This happened over twenty years ago.)
(ii) Posar-se
Used only with adjective complements, posar-se indicates change of mood, physical condition, disposition or appearance. The changes expressed by posar-se tend to be relatively abrupt or short-lived. A distinction is observable between S’ha posat molt irascible ‘He’s become very irritable’ and (S’)ha tornat molt irascible (see below (iii)), the latter denoting a change more in character than in mood. Posar-se can be used with both animate and inanimate subjects:
Quan ho va saber, es va posar ben moixa.
When she found out she became really gloomy.
Si continues així, et posaràs malalt.
If you go on like this you’ll become ill.
A l’aigua es posa blau.
In water it turns blue.
El to de la polèmica s’està posant crispat.
The tone of the dispute is becoming heated.
El dia se’ns posa núvol
The day is turning cloudy.
Colloquially posar-se often refers to a person’s appearance or how they are ‘got up’:
Em posaré d’estar per casa. I’ll put on some comfortable clothes.
Que elegant que t’has posat! How smart you now look!
(iii) Tornar (-se)
Applied to animate subjects tornar(-se) usually implies involuntary mental or psychological change:
(S’)han tornat molt mandrosos.
They have become very lazy.
Com és que (s’)hagi tornat tan primmirada?
How is it that she has become so fussy?
With an inanimate physical subject the idea can be that of ‘turn’:
Aquestes peres (s’)han tornat toves.
These pears have gone/turned soft.
Amb el canvi de temperatura el vi (es) tornarà agre
With the change in temperature the wine will turn sour.
Occasionally also in this sense of ‘turn’ applied to a person:
Quan (es) va tornar vostè socialista? When did you turn socialist?
The same verb can also be used with abstract inanimate nouns:
La intolerància (es) torna cada dia més oberta.
Intolerance is becoming more open by the day.
La seva actitud (es) tornarà aviat menys agressiva
Their attitude will soon become less aggressive.
(iv) Fer-se
Used with both noun and adjective complements, fer-se generally implies voluntary change. It is also used for a change of role in professional and other circumstances:
S’ha fet polític/policia.
He has become a politician/a policeman.
Amb aquesta cançó es va fer famosa/rica
With this song she became famous/rich.
There is little difference between (S’)està tornant cada vegada més gandul and S’està fent cada vegada més gandul ‘He’s getting more and more idle’, except that more wilfulness is implied in the latter.
Change or development in a person’s life cycle may be expressed with fer-se or tornar(-se): S’ha fet gran/(S’)ha tornat gran ‘He has grown up’, S’han fet molt vells/(S’)han tornat molt vells ‘They have grown very old’. It is often applied to children to remark how they have changed:
Que gran que s’ha fet/(s’)ha tornat aquest nen!
How this little chap has grown (up)!
Other idioms with fer-se:
Se’ns fa tard. It’s getting late.
Com s’ha fet aquella mossa! Just look what that girl turned out like!
Em faig molt amb ells. I get on very well with them.
Els cosins no es fan. The cousins don’t get on well together.
(v) Quedar (-se)
Although several authorities repudiate use of quedar-se in
the context discussed here, its basic meaning of ‘stay’, ‘be left’, in both simple and pronominal forms would seem to validate it as translating nuances of ‘become’, especially when an idea of loss is implicit in that of change: Que prim que t’has quedat! ‘How slim you have become!’ sounds more plausible than Que gras que t’has quedat! ‘How fat…!’
Després de l’accident, va quedar cega/muda/coixa/impedida.
The accident left her blind/dumb/lame/disabled.
Vaig quedar sorprès en sentir aquesta resposta.
I was surprised when I heard that reply.
Es van quedar sense un duro
They were left penniless.
The verbs restar and romandre ‘stay’ cannot easily substitute quedar (-se) in cases like the above, as they denote ‘state’ or permanence rather than change:
Es van barallar, però van restar amics
They had an argument, but they stayed friends.
Ha romàs vidua a 34 anys.
She’s been left a widow at 34.
Note that quedar-se (not quedar) is used transitively meaning ‘keep’:
Com que ningú ho reclamava, m’ho vaig quedar.
As nobody claimed it, I kept it.
Quedi’s el canvi