34.Michael Kwet, “Apartheid in the Shadows: The USA, IBM and South Africa’s Digital Police State,” CounterPunch, May 3, 2017, https://www.counterpunch.org/2017/05/03/apartheid-in-the-shadows-the-usa-ibm-and-south-africas-digital-police-state.
35.Kwet, “Apartheid in the Shadows.”
36.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., IBM, General Motors Corp, No. 14–4104 (2nd Cir. July 27, 2015), https://ccrjustice.org/sites/default/files/attach/2015/06/InReApartheid_PlAppellantsBrief_1-28-15.pdf.
37.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co.
38.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 13.
39.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 14.
40.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 15.
41.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 11.
42.“How IBM Supports Apartheid” (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Coalition for Divestment, May 1986), http://africanactivist.msu.edu/document_metadata.php?objectid=32-130-1641.
43.Donna K. H. Walters, “IBM to End Its Presence in S. Africa,” Los Angeles Times, October 22, 1986, http://articles.latimes.com/1986-10-22/news/mn-6806_1_ibm-south-africa.
44.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 10.
45.See Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co. and Electronic Frontier Foundation, “Brief of Amicus Curiae Electronic Frontier Foundation in Support of Plaintiffs,” US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, No. 14–4104–cv. February 4, 2015, https://www.eff.org/files/2015/02/11/eff_ibm_apartheid_amicus_brief_final.pdf.
46.Balintulo v. Ford Motors Co., 10.
47.Ra’eesa Pather, “Government Stopped Apartheid Victims from Receiving Better Compensation—Ntsebeza,” Johannesburg Mail and Guardian, February 3, 2018, https://mg.co.za/article/2018-02-03-government-stopped-apartheid-victims-from-receiving-better-compensation-ntsebeza.
48.“GroundUp: Apartheid Victims Lose 14-Year Legal Battle Against Ford and IBM,” Daily Maverick, June 23, 2016, https://www.daily maverick.co.za/article/2016-06-23-groundup-apartheid-victims-lose-14-year-legal-battle-against-ford-and-ibm/. See also, “Ntsebeza, et al., v. Daimler AG, et al.,” United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Citation No. 617 F. Supp. 2d 228, April 8, 2009, https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2246584/in-re-south-african-apartheid-litigation.
49.“GroundUp: Apartheid Victims Lose.”
50.George Joseph and Kenneth Lipp, “IBM Used NYPD Surveillance Footage to Develop Technology That Lets Police Search by Skin Color,” The Intercept, September 6, 2018, https://theintercept.com/2018/09/06/nypd-surveillance-camera-skin-tone-search/.
51.Joseph and Lipp, “IBM Used NYPD Surveillance Footage to Develop Technology That Lets Police Search by Skin Color.”
52.IBM, “How IBM Is Improving Watson Visual Recognition Capabilities,” March 15, 2018, https://www.ibm.com/blogs/watson/2018/03/how-ibm-is-improving-watson-visual-recognition-capabilities/.
53.Rick Kjeldsen, quoted in Joseph and Lipp, “IBM Used NYPD Surveillance Footage to Develop Technology That Lets Police Search by Skin Color.”
54.Matt O’Brien, Associated Press, “Face Recognition Researcher Fights Amazon over Biased AI,” ABC News, April 3, 2019, https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/face-recognition-researcher-fights-amazon-biased-ai-62146446.
Chapter 13: Clandestine Service
1.Tom Van Vleck, “Tech Square,” Multicians, November 1994, https://www.multicians.org/tech-square.html.
2.Richard Harris Smith, OSS: The Secret History of America’s First Central Intelligence Agency (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 335.
Chapter 14: A Mass Shooting at IBM
1.Edell Lydia Jr., Statement of Kwame Kwasi Afoh (Edell Lydia, Jr.), Hearing on the Anti-Apartheid Selective Purchasing Resolution before the Council of the District of Columbia, January 20, 1976, http://african activist.msu.edu/document_metadata.php?objectid=32-130-1F3F.
2.Lydia, Statement of Kwame Kwasi Afoh.
3.Lydia, Statement of Kwame Kwasi Afoh.
4.Lydia, Statement of Kwame Kwasi Afoh.
5.Steve Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM,” Black Enterprise, April 1983, 24, https://books.google.com/books?id=2wIveHyHOe8C&pg=PA24&lpg=PA24&dq=askin+%22wage+secrecy+at+IBM%22&source=bl&ots=rz87wHkSsj&sig=ACfU3U0HuIczpBRia4xsaznfQay76V2D9A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjb0IO6jtLgAhVBMnwKHWjlB3sQ6AEwAHoECAAQAQ#v=onepage&q=askin%20%22wage%20 secrecy%20at%20IBM%22&f=false.
6.Francis X. Clines, “2 Killed and 8 Wounded in Rampage in Maryland,” New York Times, May 29, 1982, https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/29/us/2-killed-and-8-wounded-in-rampage-in-maryland.html; United Press International, “Authorities Seeking a Motive in Maryland I.B.M. Shootings,” New York Times, May 30, 1982, https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/30/us/authorities-seeking-a-motive-in-maryland-ibm-shootings.html.
7.Kenneth Bredemeier, “Murder Suspect Claimed IBM Denied Him Promotions,” Washington Post, June 12, 1982, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1982/06/12/murder-suspect-claimed-ibm-denied-him-promotions/0c78cbee-bf50-44b1-b424-c2741524e692/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.57d4e1487911.
8.Pam Coulter, quoted in Vincent Del Giudice, “Man Kills Two in IBM Building,” May 29, 1982, UPI Archive, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/05/29/Man-kills-two-in-IBM-building/3981391492800.
9.Susan Blakeney, “Racism Charges Surface After IBM Shootings,” Computerworld, June 21, 1982, 7, https://books.google.com/books?id=iLFaf5KtS6EC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=%22racism+charges+sur face+after+ibm+shootings%22&source=bl&ots=zQc_PIdlYS&sig=ACfU3U3cj86KZWtVnHScKOWiOdepQLeong&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjV0uPXj9LgAhXCj1QKHY79CFkQ6AEwAHoECAEQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22racism%20charges%20surface%20after%20ibm%20shootings%22&f=false.
10.Blakeney, “Racism Charges Surface After IBM Shootings.”
11.Blakeney, “Racism Charges Surface After IBM Shootings.”
12.Associated Press, “Former Manager Sues IBM for Racial Discrimination,” Los Angeles Times, August 8, 1989, http://articles.latimes.com/1989-08-08/business/fi-291_1_racial-discrimination.
13.Associated Press, “Former Manager Sues IBM for Racial Discrimination.”
14.Dusé v. IBM, No. 00–7158 (2nd Cir. June 5, 2001), https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1430102.html.
15.Associated Press, “Two Inmates Apparently Commit Suicide,” March 10, 1986, https://www.apnews.com/7dccf1a3828220bdcac721def2836ee1.
16.Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM.”
17.Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM.”
18.Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM.”
19.Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM.”
20.Hudson v. IBM, No. 79–7371 (2nd Cir. April 8, 1980), https://openjurist.org/620/f2d/351/hudson-v-international-business-machines-corporation.
21.Askin, “Wage Secrecy at IBM.”
22.Center for Employment Equity, Is Silicon Valley Tech Diversity Possible Now? (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts, 2016).
Chapter 15: The Egg
1.Charles and Ray Eames, “The Information Machine,” 1964, IBM, https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2085.html.
2.Interestingly, when using the keyword phrase “black on white crime,” the results obtained from a Bing search are no longer similar to those obtained from a Google search, although they once were, suggesting that both Bing and Google actually may have tweaked the algorithm that generates results for this keyword phrase.
3.Dylann Roof, “Dylann Roof’s Manifesto,” New York Times, December 13, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/13/universal/document-Dylann-Roof-manifesto.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=AC22CEB6963929845580949F9F9F7A6C&gwt=pay.
4.“Council of Conservative Citizens,” Southern Poverty Law Center, n.d., https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/council-conservative-citizens.
5.“Council of Conservative Citizens,” Southern Poverty Law Center.
6.Robert Epstein, quoted in Rebecca Hersher, “What Happened When Dylann Roof Asked Google for Information about Race?” The Two-Way, National Public Radio, January 10, 2017, https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/01/10/508363607/what-happened-when-dylann-roof-asked-google-for-information-about-race.
&nbs
p; 7.Robert Epstein, “The Unprecedented Power of Digital Platforms to Control Opinions and Votes,” Pro-Market (blog), Univ. of Chicago Stigler Center, April 12, 2018, https://promarket.org/unprecedented-power-digital-platforms-control-opinions-votes.
8.Hersher, “What Happened When Dylann Roof Asked Google.”
9.Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York Univ. Press, 2018), 5, 64.
10.Ben Guarino, “Google Faulted for Racial Bias in Image Search Results for Black Teenagers,” Washington Post, June 10, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/06/10/google-faulted-for-racial-bias-in-image-search-results-for-black-teenagers/?utm_term=.5990cbcd27fb. The videos and images returned for my search for “black on white crime” showed a similar negative portrayal of Blacks.
11.Matthew Speiser, “Google Maps Searches Are Turning Up Some Wildly Racist and Creepy Results,” Business Insider, May 20, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com/google-maps-searches-yielding-racist-and-creepy-results-2015-5.
12.Tim Mak, “Russian Influence Campaign Sought to Exploit Americans’ Trust in Local News,” National Public Radio, July 12, 2018, https://www.npr.org/2018/07/12/628085238/russian-influence-campaign-sought-to-exploit-americans-trust-in-local-news.
13.Mak, “Russian Influence Campaign.”
14.Jens Manuel Krogstad and Mark Hugo Lopez, “Black Voter Turnout Fell in 2016, Even as a Record Number of Americans Cast Ballots,” Pew Research Center, May 12, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/12/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots.
15.Cited in Colbert I. King, “Trump’s Sad ‘Thank You’ to African Americans,” Washington Post, February 3, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/trumps-sad-thank-you-to-african-americans/2017/02/03/2dc3c47c-e992-11e6-bf6f-301b6b443624_story.html?utm_term=.154e4cfcf109.
16.United States of America v. Internet Research Agency, et. al. (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, February 16, 2018), 18, para. 46.
17.United States of America v. Internet Research Agency, emphasis added.
18.Leo Hornak, “Some Black Lives Matter Activists Plan Not to Vote in November,” The World, Public Radio International, July 20, 2016, https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-07-20/i-aint-voting-will-black-lives-matter-reject-right-vote.
19.Lyndon B. Johnson, “The Right to Vote,” transcript of address to joint session of Congress, March 15, 1965, Congressional Quarterly, http://library.cqpress.com/cqalmanac/document.php?id=cqal65-875-26756-1260597.
20.North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP et al. v. McCrory, No. 16–1468 (4th Cir. July 29, 2016), 10–11, http://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinions/published/161468.p.pdf.
21.Joseph Walker, “Meet the New Boss: Big Data,” Wall Street Journal, September 20, 2012, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443890304578006252019616768.
22.Walker, “Meet the New Boss”; Q2 2013 Workforce Performance Report: Key Factors Impacting the Performance—and Profitability—of Today’s Hourly Workforces (San Francisco: Evolv, 2013), 17.
23.Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Report to Congress on Credit Scoring and Its Effects on the Availability and Affordability of Credit (Washington, DC: Federal Reserve System, 2007), S-2.
24.Danielle Ensign, Sorelle A. Friedler, Scott Neville, et al., “Runaway Feedback Loops in Predictive Policing,” Proceeding of Machine Learning Research 81 (2018): 1–12.
25.Julia Angwin, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, et al., “Machine Bias: There’s Software Used Across the Country to Predict Future Criminals. And It’s Biased Against Blacks,” ProPublica, May 23, 2016, https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.
26.Sophie Kleeman, “Here Are the Microsoft Twitter Bot’s Craziest Racist Rants,” Gizmodo, March 24, 2016, https://gizmodo.com/here-are-the-microsoft-twitter-bot-s-craziest-racist-ra-1766820160.
27.Jason Pontin, “A Meeting with Sergey Brin, Cofounder of Google, at the Russian Tea Room in San Francisco,” Red Herring, July 16, 2002, Wayback Machine, https://web.archive.org/web/20020719125615/http://www.redherring.com/insider/2002/0716/bait071602.html.
28.Martin Luther King Jr., Remarks, Western Michigan Univ., December 18, 1963, https://wmich.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/MLK.pdf.
29.Martin Luther King Jr., Letter from the Birmingham Jail (New York: Penguin, 2018), 2.
Chapter 16: Leaving
1.Earl Chapin May, “This Ford’s a Pullman Porter,” Collier’s Weekly, July 5, 1924, 8.
2.Robert X. Cringley, “Triumph of the Nerds,” PBS, June 1996, https://www.pbs.org/nerds.
3.Sol Libes, “Bytelines,” Byte, December 1981, 314–18, https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1981-12/page/n315.
4.Sol Libes, “Bytelines,” Byte, September 1985, 418, https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1985-09/page/n401.
5.IBM PC XT/370.
About the Author
CLYDE W. FORD is the author of ten works of fiction and nonfiction. He is also a psychotherapist, an accomplished mythologist, and a sought-after public speaker. He has received a number of awards, including the Zora Neale Hurston/Richard Wright Award in African American fiction. He is currently a speaker for Humanities Washington, an affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities, and has been featured frequently in the media, including on The Oprah Winfrey Show, New Dimensions Radio, and NPR. He lives in Bellingham, Washington.
Discover great authors, exclusive offers, and more at hc.com.
Also by Clyde W. Ford
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Copyright
THINK BLACK. Copyright © 2019 by Clyde W. Ford. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.
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Digital Edition SEPTEMBER 2019 ISBN: 978-0-06-289058-0
Version 08222019
Print ISBN: 978-0-06-289056-6
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