by Bibek Debroy
There is the loyalty strand in one of Grimm’s fairy tales also. A farmer wanted to shoot an old dog that was too old to be of any use. However, the dog had a friend, the wolf. The wolf seized the farmer’s child. However, following the plan, the dog pursued the wolf and pretended to rescue the child after a fight. The farmer not only decided not to kill the dog, but also promised to take care of him as long as he lived.
The negative perceptions about dogs primarily came about through Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In both Hebrew and Muslim cultures, it was forbidden to eat an animal that had been torn by dogs. Islam made an exception for the Saluki, regarded as a gift from Allah and originating from Saluk in Yemen. This may have had a lot to do with the region where these influential religions originated, where rabies was endemic and public health and sanitation were of great concern. Whether it is the Old Testament or the New Testament, charitable references to dogs are almost non-existent throughout the Bible. 2 Peter 2:22 has, ‘The dog has returned to its own vomit, and the sow that was bathed to rolling in the mire.’ An echo of Proverb 26:11, ‘Just like a dog returning to its own vomit, the stupid one is repeating his foolishness.’ In Kings 2:36 we have, ‘In the tract of land of Jez’re-el the dogs will eat the flesh of Jez’ebel.’ This is presumably a reflection of the dog’s scavenging role. But we do know that the flocks of the tribes of Israel were guarded by dogs, notwithstanding the present-day Bible’s (which after all is a version purged by the Church) lack of references to close connections between humans and dogs. However, despite the Jewish tradition against images of animals, in Byzantine icons there are depictions of Saint Christopher with a dog’s head. There is also a tradition of throwing unclean meat to dogs as gratitude for their silence during the Exodus. Other than the health angle, the disdain towards dogs may have been due to the practice of dog worship among the Egyptians and the Canaanites.
Throughout the Europe of the Middle Ages, hunting became a craze and dog breeding became an industry. The pure-bred dog was the prized possession of kings, nobility and church officials, and the dog’s collar told us how important the owner was. Fighting dogs often had their own armour. Breeds were also developed for bull and bear baiting, catching rats and pit-fighting. Thomas Platter, a Swiss tourist, visited England in 1599 and said the following in his diary.
Every Sunday and Wednesday in London there are bearbaitings on the other side of the water … The theatre is circular, with galleries round the top for the spectators; the ground space down below, beneath the clear sky, is unoccupied. In the middle of this place a large bear on a long rope was bound to a stake, then a number of great English mastiffs were brought in and shown first to the bear, which they afterwards baited one after another: now the excellence and fine temper of such mastiffs was evinced, for although they were much struck and mauled by the bear, they did not give in, but had to be pulled off by sheer force, and their muzzles forced open with long sticks to which a broad iron piece was attached at the top. The bears’ teeth were not sharp so they could not injure the dogs; they have them broken short. When the first mastiffs tired, fresh ones were brought in to bait the bear.
Companion dogs like spaniels and terriers emerged and these lapdogs were dressed in ribbons, jewels and dolls’ clothing. Legislation was passed decreeing who could own what kind of dog. For example, in 1014, King Canute passed a law that only the nobility could own greyhounds. But this kind of law applied to purebred dogs. Ordinary people also had their own dogs and church documents tell us that parishioners often brought their dogs to church as foot-warmers. In a church in Swaffham, East Anglia, there is the wooden bench-finial of a dog. This concerns a myth about a pedlar who gave money to rebuild the churches of saints Peter and Paul. Rather oddly, monasteries became centres of dog breeding. For example, the Belgian Benedictine monastery of Saint Hubert (7 CE) became known for its bloodhounds (abbreviation of blooded houn). The monastery of St Bernard was founded in the 10th century CE and from the 13th century, dogs bred there began to be used for rescuing travellers. During the Renaissance period, portraits of dogs also appeared in mythological, allegorical and religious art. In allegorical representations, there are even pictures of dogs playing the role of clergy. The Bichon Frise dog became common in French courts and Henry III had a basket around his throat to carry these pets. When Cortes invaded America, he had armoured mastiffs with him and these were let loose on defenceless Native Americans. In the 12th and 13th centuries, English kings used dogs in their wars against the Scots and the Irish. When Henry VIII signed an alliance with Charles V of Spain, he sent the Spanish king 400 dogs to help fight the French.
While the negative image in Christianity was reduced over time, it remained in Islam. In Islam, dogs are regarded as unclean, particularly in Arab countries. However, even there, there is an anecdote about the Prophet Mohammed. One day, a panting and thirsty dog approached one of the Prophet’s followers. Noticing the dog, the follower tore off a piece of his shirt, soaked it in a puddle of muddy water and moistened the dog’s mouth, having taken the dog in his lap. Others went and complained to the Prophet, arguing that someone who had touched a filthy animal should be banished. When he found out what had happened, the Prophet said, ‘He is a better Muslim than you are, because he is kind to animals.’ There is yet another tradition, not quite an anecdote, told by the Durze in Lebanon. According to this unconfirmed story, when Mohammed was a child, he was bitten by a watchdog while stealing eggs. That may well explain why antipathy towards dogs is now part of Islamic dogma. However, there is a difference between what is in the Quran and what is in the Hadith. The Quran proper has no negative references to dogs.
There are six strands to the negative statements in the Hadith. First, there is the statement ascribed to the Prophet that all dogs should be killed, especially pure black ones. Among the black ones, dogs with two spots above their eyes were particularly regarded as evil. However, some dogs could be retained for hunting, farming and watchdog functions. The rationale given for this instruction is that there may have been an excess of strays, and consequent danger of rabies, in the city of Medina and the suburbs. Indeed, there is a related story that Gabriel had promised to meet the Prophet in the night, but did not enter the house because there was a puppy under the cot. When the Prophet asked of Gabriel why he had not come the previous night, Gabriel said that he would not enter a house where there was a dog or a picture. This incident led to the order that dogs be killed. Second, there was thus the belief that angels did not enter a house where there was a dog or a picture. Third, there was a prohibition on trade and commerce in dogs. But there was an exception for dogs that were used in hunting, watching, farming or herding. Fourth, there was a loss of reward, from good deeds, for whoever owned a dog, with the usual exceptions, so the prohibition effectively amounted to a prohibition on keeping a dog as a pet. Fifth, if a dog (or a woman or a donkey) passed in front, the effect of praying was annulled. Sixth, not only could a dog’s flesh not be eaten, food, water or vessels touched by a dog became unclean and had to be purified. In all of these, Arab folklore could simply have been imposed on Islam.
This chapter was not only an introductory chapter, it was also about the antecedents. To illustrate what the dog has now become, we conclude this chapter with George Vest. George Vest was a nineteenth-century lawyer, later to become a senator in Missouri. In Warrensburg, a man owned a foxhound named Old Drum and a neighbour shot and killed this dog. The owner sued the man who shot Drum and George Vest was the lawyer. There was no direct evidence. But after hearing George Vest’s speech, the jury fined the neighbour 500 dollars, even though the maximum fine was 150 dollars. This speech, delivered in 1870, figures in many American collections of oratory and is known as “Tribute to a Dog”.16 Here it is.
Gentlemen of the jury, the best friend a man has in this world may turn against him and become his enemy. His son and daughter that he has reared with loving care may become ungrateful. Those who are nearest and dearest to us, those whom we
trust with our happiness and our good name, may become traitors to their faith. The money that a man has he may lose. It flies away from him when he may need it most. Man’s reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill-considered action. The people who are prone to fall on their knees and do us honor when success is with us may be the first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud upon our head.
The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish world, the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous, is his dog. A man’s dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty, in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground, where the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only he may be near his master’s side. He will kiss the hand that has no food to offer, he will lick the wounds and sores that come in encounter with the roughness of the world. He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert, he remains. When riches take wing and reputation falls to pieces, he is as content in his love as the sun in its journey through the heavens. If fortune drives the master forth an outcast into the cold, friendless and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of accompanying him to guard him against danger, and to fight against his enemies. When the last scene of all comes, and death takes his master in its embrace and his body is laid away in the cold ground, no matter if all other friends pursue their way, there by his graveside will the noble dog be found, his head between his paws and his eyes sad, but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true even to death.
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Literature and Modernity
In earlier periods, the distinction between folklore and fables and literature, was at best, blurred. Fables, in which dogs often adopt human characteristics, exist across cultures. The Native Americans have a story about how dogs came to the Ojibwa.
There were two Ojibwas in a canoe and they were blown away from shore by a great wind. They were hungry and lost, and were too weak to paddle. So they drifted and the canoe was finally blown onto a beach. But they were soon worried. Looking for animal footprints, they found some gigantic footprints. They hid in some bushes, but a gigantic arrow hit the ground beside them. On looking up, they saw a giant. But the giant said he did not hurt little people. He invited the two Ojibwas to come home with him and eat and rest. They gladly agreed. But there was an evil Windigo spirit which came along and told the Indians that the giant was really planning to eat them and that he had other men hidden away for that purpose. However, it was the Windigo spirit that was the really evil one and it was he who wanted to eat the two Ojibwas. Eventually, a quarrel developed between the giant and the Windigo spirit. The giant overturned a bowl with a big stick and from under that bowl, there emerged a strange animal named ‘Dog’. The giant asked the dog to kill the Windigo spirit. The dog grew in size and did precisely that. The dog was the giant’s pet. But on seeing how the Ojibwas admired the dog, the giant promised to give the dog to them as a pet and told them that the dog would lead them home. Once they were at the beach, the dog grew in size and the Ojibwas climbed onto its back. The dog swam and swam, until they neared the Ojibwas’ home. But once they were near the familiar shore, the dog became small again, left them and disappeared into the forest. Consequently, no one else from the tribe would believe their story. But after some time, when the rest of the tribe was asleep, the dog returned to the two Ojibwas. It accepted food from their hands and became their pet. The rest of the tribe now believed their story and that is how the dog first came to the earth.
Most common dog stories of course derive from, or find an echo in, Aesop. We do not know a great deal about Aesop (Aisopos). We know he lived from around 620 BCE to around 560 BCE. We know he was a slave and his master was named Iadmon. We know the inhabitants of Delphi killed Aesop. In the fourteenth century, a monk named Maximus Planudes collated fables ascribed to Aesop and it is this version that we generally know. We may not know a great deal about Aesop, but we have all read his fables, in one form or another. Here are Aesop’s stories about dogs. Usually, all Aesop’s stories have a moral at the end. These have been removed, because the moral is fairly obvious. There are around two hundred and fifty Aesop fables and almost ten per cent of the stories involve dogs.
Story 1: The ass and the farmer’s dog
One day, a farmer came to the stables to see the animals. Among the animals was the farmer’s favourite ass. The ass was always well fed and his master often rode him. With the farmer came his dog. The dog licked the farmer’s hand and jumped around, extremely happy. The farmer searched for some food in his pocket and gave it to the dog. Then he sat down, to tell his servants what to do. The dog jumped on to the farmer’s lap and sat there, blinking his eyes. The farmer stroked the dog’s ears. Seeing this, the ass broke his tether and began to jump around, copying what he had seen the dog do. The farmer began to laugh. But the ass went to the farmer and tried to climb into his lap. Seeing this, the farmer’s servants beat the ass with sticks.
Story 2: The bitch and her puppies
A bitch was about to give birth. She asked a shepherd to show her a place where she might rest and have her puppies. When the puppies were born, the bitch requested the shepherd that she might bring up her puppies in the same place. The shepherd granted this request also. But then the puppies grew up and all these dogs would not allow the shepherd to approach the place, although that place was actually the shepherd’s.
Story 3: The brazier and his dog
A brazier is a person who works with brass. A brazier had a small dog and he loved his dog. The dog always went around with him. When the brazier worked, the dog slept. But when the brazier went to have dinner, the dog woke up and wagged his tail, wanting to be fed. One day, the brazier pretended to be angry and shook his stick at his dog. ‘What will I do with you?’ said the brazier. ‘You are a lazy animal. When I am hard at work, you sleep on your mat. When I am tired and want to eat, you wake up and wag your tail for food. You must learn that without work, there is no food. Only those who work are allowed to eat.’
Story 4: The dog at the feast
A rich man arranged a big feast. He invited all his friends and acquaintances to this feast. The rich man’s dog thought this was a good occasion to invite his friend, another dog, to the feast. ‘There is always food left over when there is a feast,’ he told his friend. ‘Come and eat with us.’ The invited dog turned up when he was asked to. Seeing the grand preparations, he thought, ‘What a wonderful opportunity and how grand is the entertainment. I don’t get such invitations normally. Let me ensure that I eat enough to last till tomorrow.’ Happy at the prospect, he began to wag his tail at this friend, who had invited him there. But the cook noticed this strange dog wandering around among the dishes. She grabbed him by his legs and threw him out of the window. Howling with pain and shock, the stranger dog fell down on the ground and limped away. Other street-dogs turned up to see what was causing the commotion. They wanted to know what kind of food he had at the feast. ‘I ate and drank so much that I don’t remember anything,’ replied the dog who had been thrown out. ‘I don’t even remember how I left the house.’
Story 5: The dog and the hare
A dog was chasing a hare up a hill. He followed the hare for some time, occasionally biting the hare as if he would kill the hare, at other times, fawning on her, as if he was playing with another dog. ‘I wish you would be straightforward and show honestly what you want,’ said the hare. ‘If you are a friend, why are you biting me? If you are an enemy, why are you fawning?’
Story 6: The dog and the oyster
A dog was used to eating eggs. He saw an oyster and thought it was an egg. So he opened his mouth and swallowed the oyster. Later, the dog suffered from pain in his stomach. ‘Serves me right,’ said the dog. ‘I deserve this. I was a fool to think that everything round must be an egg.’
Story 7: The dog and his shadow (version 1)
A dog was crossing a stream
on a plank that was used as a bridge. The dog saw his reflection in the stream and thought it was another dog. ‘You ugly creature,’ he shouted. ‘Why are you glaring at me in that way?’ He grabbed at what he thought was another dog. But a butcher’s boy had dropped a piece of meat into the stream. In the process, the dog therefore managed to grab that piece of meat.
Story 8: The dog and the shadow (version 2)