by Donald Lopez
Answer: The Buddha’s sacred intent is hard to fathom; it is not easily to be grasped. Nevertheless, an attempt may be offered here utilizing two concepts: the contrast between superior and inferior, and the contrast between difficult and easy.
Regarding the first contrast, the nembutsu is superior and other practices are inferior. This is because myriad virtues have come to reside within Amida’s name. All the virtues possessed by Amida Buddha – all the inwardly realized virtues such as the four wisdoms, three bodies, ten powers and fourfold fearlessness, and all the outwardly functioning virtues such as a buddha’s marks and features, the light of wisdom, the teaching of dharma to beings and the benefiting of living things – have been gathered into Amida Buddha’s name. Thus, the virtues of the name are wholly superior. Other practices are not so. They each prop up but a portion of merit. Hence, they are said to be inferior….
Regarding the second contrast, saying the nembutsu is easy, while other practices are difficult…. Since the nembutsu is easy, it is accessible to all. Other practices, being difficult, are not available to every being. It was surely to bring all sentient beings to birth in the pure land without any discrimination that the bodhisattva Dharma-Repository discarded the difficult and adopted the easy, making the latter the core of the primal vow. Had the making of images and the erection of stūpa-towers been made the core of the primal vow, the poor and destitute would have been left without any hope of birth. And yet the wealthy and highborn are few, while the poor and lowly are numerous. Had wisdom and lofty capacities been made the core of the primal vow, the dull and foolish would have been left without any hope of birth. And yet the sagacious are rare, while the foolish and ignorant are many. Had study and broad learning been made the core of the primal vow, those of little knowledge would have been left without any hope of birth. And yet the learned are few, and those without learning many. Had observance of precepts been made the core of the primal vow, those who failed to uphold or receive precepts would have been left without any hope of birth. And yet keepers of precepts are few, while violators are many. This applies to all the other forms of practice.
Know that had the various practices mentioned above been made the core of the primal vow, those attaining birth would have been few, while those unable to be born would have been numerous. For this reason, Amida Buddha, in the distant past, as the bodhisattva Dharma-Repository, was moved by undiscriminating compassion and sought to embrace all beings universally. In order to do so, he declined to make the various forms of practice such as creating images and erecting stūpa-towers the practice resulting in birth in the primal vow. Rather, he made the single practice of simply saying the name of the Buddha the core of his primal vow.
Translated by Dennis Hirota from Hōnen, Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu shū, in Ōhashi Shunnō (ed.), Hōnen Ippen, Nihon shisō taikei, vol. 10 (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1971).
43
THE BODHISATTVA VOW
A bodhisattva is someone who vows to achieve buddhahood in order to free all beings in the universe from suffering. In the early tradition, the term was used to refer to the Buddha in his millions of lives from the time that he made such a vow himself (see Chapter 15) to his achievement of enlightenment. With the rise of the Mahāyāna, buddhahood, and hence the aspiration of the bodhisattva, became a more universal goal; some sūtras would claim that all beings in the universe would eventually traverse the bodhisattva path and become buddhas. But buddhahood, according to most accounts, was far away; what could be developed now was the aspiration to achieve buddhahood for the sake of all beings. This aspiration was called bodhicitta; it was widely extolled in Mahāyāna texts, and techniques for its cultivation were set out. The development of bodhicitta was considered the essential starting point for the long path to buddhahood; the practice of the bodhisattva path and of the six perfections of giving, patience, ethics, effort, concentration and wisdom could take place only after the aspiration to buddhahood had been created.
But bodhicitta was an attitude, an aspiration, an interior state. It was manifested verbally in the form of a vow. The taking of vows has long been central to Buddhist practice (see Chapter 26), both for the identity of the individual and the identity of the community. In addition to taking refuge in the three jewels, laypeople might take up to five vows: not to kill, not to steal, not to engage in sexual misconduct, not to lie about spiritual attainments and not to use intoxicants. Some laypeople would take eight vows, which they would maintain for two days or four days each month. Fully ordained monks and nuns held many more vows; under one of the codes, monks held 253 vows, nuns 364. They were to gather each fortnight to confess any infractions.
Similar rituals developed in the Mahāyāna, and people took the bodhisattva vow, promising publicly to achieve buddhahood in order to liberate all beings from saṃsāra. A more formal code of conduct was also developed, derived from a number of sources, with (like the monastic vows) categories of root infractions and secondary infractions. The bodhisattva vows, however, could be taken equally by laypeople and monastics, men and women, and formal ceremonies are set forth in a number of Mahāyāna treatises.
Instructions from one such ceremony appear below. It is taken from a text called Ornament for the Sage’s Mind (Munimatālaṃkāra), perhaps the last great compendium of Indian Buddhist thought and practice, composed by Abhayākaragupta in the eleventh or twelfth century. The text covers a wide range of topics in setting forth the path to enlightenment. It is noteworthy that the text begins with the passage translated below, in which the author explains how to take the bodhisattva vow, whether in a public ceremony from a qualified guru or, if such a teacher is not available, then alone, seated before an image of the Buddha.
It is certain that sentient beings have not lost the good fortune to abandon the two obstructions. Yet, because they lack a virtuous guide, they are mistakenly attached to things that lack intrinsic existence, and as a result, they do not understand the three thoroughly afflicted things – afflictions such as ignorance, action and birth – before, later or in the middle. They naturally descend into the depths of the well of saṃsāra, from the peak of existence to the final Avīci. No matter how they rise through toil, they are saddened each day by the suffering of pain and the suffering of change. They are absorbed in actions and afflictions that are like reflections, and they fall, made destitute by momentary impermanence and by objects whose foundation is like the reflection of the moon in swiftly moving water.
Due to the power of compassion, bodhisattvas who have understood the emptiness of intrinsic nature feel destitute themselves [because sentient beings] are made destitute by impermanence. They wish to attain buddhahood, the cause of the arising of the perfect essence of the ambrosia of the excellent doctrine – antidote to all mistaken conceptions – whose nature is one of friendship to all beings. Inspired by that [wish] and not thinking of themselves, they seek only to benefit others. As a result, they undergo great hardship and become completely exhausted in amassing the collections [of merit and wisdom] over a long time.
It is said, ‘Through engaging in hardship, they completely amass the collections over a long time and are certain to attain the state of omniscience.’ Therefore, it is said, ‘Completely gripped by compassion and great compassion – the root of the qualities of a buddha – the blessed buddhas find omniscience and act for the welfare of all beings.’ Therefore it is great compassion alone that causes the blessed ones not to abide in nirvāṇa. As [the Madhyamakāvatāra I.2] says: ‘Just mercy is seen as the seed, as water for growth, and as the ripening to a state of enjoyment for a long time.’ The Pramāṇavarttika [II. 199] says: ‘Those with great mercy act only on behalf of others.’
Furthermore, through becoming constantly familiar with all sentient beings who abide in three realms, it [i.e., compassion] will increase. Thus, through the power of cultivating great compassion, you will promise to rescue all sentient beings, thus creating the aspiration to enlightenment [bodhicitta]. ‘Because bodhisattvas, endowe
d with great compassion and possessing the lineage of complete, perfect enlightenment, suffer at the suffering of others, Ānanda, I say that whoever goes for refuge to the Buddha, dharma and saṅgha and correctly maintains and fully protects the five bases of practice [not to kill, steal, lie, engage in sexual misconduct, or use intoxicants], the merit of that virtue is inconceivable and immeasurable. I say that śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, even to the point of nirvāṇa, are unable to take its measure.’ By hearing of such benefits, great joy is created. ‘By saying, “I go for refuge until enlightenment to the Buddha, the dharma and the supreme community”, one is saying, “Relying on refuge in the form-body, the truth-body and community of irreversible bodhisattvas, I will become a complete and perfect buddha; having extricated everyone in this world from suffering, I will place them in complete and perfect buddhahood.” With this brief [statement], those of the sharpest faculties create the nature of the bodhisattva vow.
Regarding this vow, beginners and those who follow the customs of laypeople should take the vow from a guru who knows the rite for taking the vow properly. In his absence, one should imagine oneself to be in the presence of the buddhas and bodhisattvas and take [the vow]. If it is done in full form, place an image of the Tathāgata in front, ‘Ānanda, whosoever, with a mind most clear, makes a maṇḍala for the Tathāgata in the shape of a square or a half-moon, in the shape of a circle or a chariot, will, in accordance with the number [of offerings] become the lord of Kuru in the north, Videha in the east, Godanīya in the west, and Jambudvīpa in the south. At death, in accordance with the number, one will be born in the heavens of Thirty-Three, Free from Combat, Joyous and Liking Emanation.’ By following such statements in the Kūṭāgāra Sūtra, anoint the maṇṭala and properly offer the five offerings, ‘O Ānanda, I will protect completely any sentient beings whosoever who join their palms and make obeisance, saying, “I bow down to the blessed Tathāgata.”’ Such benefits are set forth.
Properly create great clarity towards the buddhas and bodhisattvas of the ten directions and bow down. Then make a maṇṭala and so forth in front of the guru and then humble yourself by sitting or kneeling and joining your palms and then request three times, ‘Son of good lineage before me, I wish to receive the bodhisattva vow. Therefore, if I am worthy to receive it, because of your mercy for me, please bestow the vow of the bodhisattva’s ethics.’ To this, the guru says three times, ‘Do you aspire to enlightenment?’ ‘In my presence, will you receive the foundation of training in the ethics of the bodhisattvas?’ Promise saying, ‘I will maintain them.’ Repeat after the guru: ‘I beseech the blessed buddhas and bodhisattvas gathered from the realms of the ten directions to consider me. I beseech the master to consider me. I, so and so, confess all of the sins, no matter how small, that I have performed, ordered others to perform, or admired, with my body, speech and mind, against the buddhas and bodhisattvas, my parents, and other sentient beings, in this lifetime or in another existence. I am aware of them, remember them, and do not conceal them.’ Say this three times.
Then say three times: ‘I, so-and-so, from this day until the essence of enlightenment, go for refuge to the best of bipeds, the blessed Buddha, endowed with great compassion, the all-knowing, the all-teaching, who has transcended all enemies and all fear, the great being, endowed with an immutable body, endowed with an unsurpassed body. I go for refuge to the dharma, the supreme peace of those who are freed from desire. I go for refuge to the supreme of assemblies, the community of irreversible bodhisattvas.’ ‘Just as bodhisattvas in the past, present, and future create the aspiration to enlightenment and have gone, go, and will go to buddhahood in order to liberate, rescue, and completely protect limitless realms of sentient beings from the sufferings of saṃsāra and in order to establish them in the unsurpassed knowledge of omniscience, and just as all the buddhas know and see with the knowledge of a buddha and the eye of a buddha, which is unobstructed, and just as they have understood and continue to understand the reality of phenomena, so I, so-and-so, through this rite, in the presence of the master so-and-so and in the presence of all the buddhas and bodhisattvas create the aspiration to unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment.’ Say that three times.
‘I dedicate the roots of virtue produced from my confession of sins, going for refuge to the three, and creating the aspiration to enlightenment to unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment. In a world without protection, without refuge, without a home, without friends and without a haven, I will be a protector, a refuge, a home, a friend and a haven. I will free all those sentient beings who have not crossed the ocean of existence. I will take completely beyond sorrow those who have not passed completely beyond sorrow by leading them beyond sorrow to the unobstructed dharmadhātu. I will quell the suffering of those whose suffering has not been quelled.’ Say that three times. ‘I, so-and-so, by creating the aspiration to enlightenment in that way, will hold each in the realm of limitless sentient beings to be my mother, father, sister, brother, son, daughter, relative, or half-brother or sister. Holding them in that way, I will begin to multiply roots of virtue to the limit of my ability, my power and my capacity. From this day forward, no matter how small, I will give gifts, guard ethics, enhance patience, work with effort, enter into concentration, analyse with wisdom and study skilful methods, all for the sake of the welfare, benefit and happiness of all sentient beings. I will follow, in accordance with the Mahāyāna, those endowed with great compassion who, beginning with [the aspiration to] unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment, entered into the great [bodhisattva] levels. Therefore, I will train to be a bodhisattva. From this day forward, I, called “bodhisattva”, ask to be cared for by the master.’ Say that three times. Thus, in the presence of the image of the Tathāgata, bow down and ask all the buddhas and bodhisattvas to be aware of your earlier dedication of merit, of your holding beings [to be family members], of your amassing of the collections in order to protect them, and of your following of the Mahāyāna. [The guru] says, ‘In my presence, this person has correctly received and holds the vow of the ethics of the bodhisattva.’
If you take it yourself without such a guru, leave out, ‘I beseech the master to consider me’ and ‘in the presence of the master named so-and-so’ and [instead of saying, ‘From this day forward I, the bodhisattva so and so beseech the master to care for me]’ say, ‘From this day forward I, the bodhisattva so-and-so, beseech the blessed buddhas and bodhisattvas to care for me.’ Immediately upon beseeching them, one is praised by the buddhas and bodhisattvas. Think about this constantly in order to increase virtue.
Translated by Donald Lopez from the Munimatālaṃkāra by Abhayākaragupta, Derge edition of the Tibetan canon (Toh. 3908), Dbu ma, vol. a, 73b6–76b1. Tibetan Tripitaka, Taipei Edition, vol. 36 (Taipei: SMC Publishing, 1991), pp. 377/147(6)–378/152(1).
44
FREEING BIRDS AND FISH FROM BONDAGE
Much Buddhist practice is the practice of restraint, especially the restraint of body, speech and mind in order to avoid the performance of negative deeds that will result in suffering in the future. Refraining from non-virtue, whether it be physical, verbal or mental, is said to produce merit, especially when it is motivated by a vow to refrain from non-virtue. However, merit may also be produced by more active deeds of virtue, especially those inspired by the bodhisattva’s vow, and one of the most interesting of such deeds is the practice of ‘releasing life’ (fangsheng yi), one of the mainstays of lay Chinese Buddhism.
In Buddhist literature, the plight of animals is a common theme. Beings from the other realms of rebirth (such as gods, ghosts and hell beings) are only rarely seen by humans, but animals, and their plight, are ubiquitous. Their sufferings are many, compelled as they are to seek food constantly, while at the same time seeking to avoid becoming food. They suffer also from ignorance, with their inability to speak and to understand language preventing them from taking refuge in the three jewels and deriving benefit from Buddhist teachings, despite liv
ing in the presence of the dharma (a famous story tells of a frog who was accidentally stepped on while the Buddha was preaching the dharma and was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three). Animals are therefore special objects of Buddhist compassion.
‘Releasing life’ involves gathering animals held in captivity (often by purchasing them from butchers and fishmongers) and setting them free. In China, the release of animals was performed at both the local and the imperial levels. A decree of 759 established eighty-one ponds for the release and protection of fish. Public ceremonies for the release of creatures were held to commemorate the Buddha’s birth. Local lay societies for releasing living beings were founded, often inspired by the preaching of famous monks. Birds, turtles and fish were more popular for release than domesticated animals because they required no further assistance upon release into the water or air.
The physical release of animals was not considered fully efficacious unless some attempt was made to ensure their spiritual release as well. In the Sūtra of Golden Light (see Chapter 5), it is explained that the previous buddha Ratnabhava had made a vow that any being dwelling in the ten directions who chanced to hear his name would ascend to rebirth in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. A young man named Jalavāhana (Śākyamuni Buddha in a previous life) came upon ten thousand dying fish. After filling their dry pond with water, he recited ten epithets of Ratnabhava, causing the fish to be reborn in heaven.
Ceremonies to accompany the liberation of the animals were devised by eminent Buddhist monks; the one translated below is among the most famous. The officiating priest begins by asking the three jewels to purify the assembled creatures of the mental defilements that prevent them from comprehending what is about to be said. The priest then bestows refuge in the three jewels and recites the epithets of Ratnabhava so that the animals will be reborn in their next life in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and, eventually, achieve enlightenment. This is followed by a lecture on the twelvefold chain of dependent origination, one of the more difficult of Buddhist doctrines even for humans, then a confession of the animals’ sins, and finally a prayer for rebirth in the pure land.