Mothers and Others

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Mothers and Others Page 50

by Sarah Blaffer Hrdy


  Emery, Nathan, 198

  Emlen, Steve, 179–180, 192

  Emotions, 24, 40, 50, 52, 62, 105, 231, 275, 279, 285, 293–294; modern, 7–11; development in humans, 11, 28–29, 31–33, 38, 66–67, 131, 137–138, 172, 277, 280–284; in infants, 68, 79, 82–83, 115, 128, 132, 289–290; in mothers, 68, 79, 140; in fathers, 162

  Empathy, 2, 7, 11, 58, 283, 293–294; evolution of, 28–29, 66, 137–138; in chimpanzees, 34–35, 53, 56, 61; and language, 37–38; women versus men, 42, 290; neurological basis of, 46–48, 50, 52, 60; in infants, 132, 286, 292. See also Mind reading

  Endocrinology, 32, 71, 98–99, 168–173, 212–214, 230, 236–238

  Entomology, 185, 190, 202

  Eskimos, 153

  Ethiopia, 259

  Ethnography, 20, 32, 72, 75, 204, 240, 244–245, 249, 268, 282

  Ethology, 24, 34, 76, 81, 106, 221, 290

  Eusociality, 184–187, 191, 202, 206–207, 264, 276

  Euthanasia, 270

  Evolution, 11, 26, 43, 85, 146, 174, 179, 212, 283, 285–286, 292–293; of genus Homo, 16–21, 28–29, 32, 62, 66–67, 138, 140, 147, 249, 275–280; natural selection, 29–30, 40, 42, 47, 66–67, 82, 119–121, 131, 156, 180, 192, 200–201, 203, 209, 212, 219–220, 223–224, 231, 238, 248, 254–255, 258, 276–277, 284, 292–293; adaptive behaviors, 37, 39–40, 53, 82, 111, 126, 147, 225–226, 231, 240; role of postreproductive women, 106, 109, 252; of cooperative breeding, 107, 124, 156, 164, 167, 176, 197–199, 230–231, 245, 276–280; and attachment theory, 113–114, 118–119, 124, 126; role of alloparents, 146, 164, 180, 215, 220; and male behavior, 157, 164, 167–168; of shared care, 202, 207, 230–231, 279–280; and residence patterns, 238–241; cultural, 281–282

  Evolutionary anthropology, 17, 19, 67

  Evolutionary biology, 101, 187, 207, 242, 293

  Evolutionary ecology, 282

  Evolutionary psychiatry, 133

  Evolutionary psychology, 7, 19–20, 240, 271

  Exchange networks, 12, 14–16, 26, 29

  Exchange partnerships, 14–15

  Extended families, 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288

  Extinction, 29, 87

  “Extra” fathers, 153–156, 165, 272, 287

  Eye contact, 47–56, 60, 62, 83, 112, 115, 119–121, 139

  Facial expressions, 2, 6–7, 22, 24, 40, 42, 47–59, 62, 83, 114, 120–121, 285

  Facultative fathering, 159–164, 167

  Fairy wrens, 188–190, 202

  Falk, Dean, 123

  False-belief experiments, 135–136

  False facts, 53

  Families: extended (networks), 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288; nuclear, 144–146, 166, 239; single-parent, 145, 150. See also Kinship

  Farming-herding societies, 13, 27–28, 72, 75, 101, 107–108, 128, 151, 154, 161, 239, 246–249, 259, 269, 287

  Fathers, 42, 76, 79–80, 93–94, 108–109, 112, 117, 145, 148, 265; as caregivers, 87–89; and lactation, 98, 169–170, 172; attachment to infants, 127–129; provisioning by, 148–149, 151–152, 160–163, 178; commitment by, 150–153, 161–163, 166–167, 174; stepfathers, 152, 165; “extra,” 153–156, 165, 272, 287; facultative, 159–164, 167; chimpanzee, 160; emotional needs of, 162; and strategic flexibility, 165–167; and cads, 167–171; in residence patterns, 238–250, 254

  Fear, 38

  Fecal pellets, 182

  Fertility, and food availability, 152–153

  Fifi (chimp), 234, 243

  Finland, 259

  Fire, 249, 256

  Fish. See individual genera and species

  Fishing, 10

  Fledging, 182–183, 195

  Fleming, Alison, 42, 170–171

  Flexibility, strategic, 165–167

  Flinn, Mark, 105–107, 261

  Flint (chimp), 234

  Flo (chimp), 234, 243

  Florida, 146

  Fogel, Alan, 120

  Food: caloric needs, 14, 31, 43, 75, 101, 147, 149, 152, 256; shortages, 14, 276; nuts, 43–44, 77, 256, 269; availability, and fertility, 152–153; regurgitated, 182, 185; fire-cooked, 249, 256; as evolutionary factor, 254–257, 278–279; tubers, 255–256, 269, 278. See also Provisioning

  Food sharing, 23, 25, 35, 79–81, 92, 116, 180–181, 202, 207, 238, 256, 275, 278–279, 283. See also Provisioning

  Foraging societies. See Hunting-gathering societies

  Foresight, 8–9, 46, 171–172, 175

  Fossils, 8, 18, 65, 87, 275, 277–278, 280, 284

  Foster, Kevin, 207

  Foster parents, 79, 195, 200–201, 211, 228–229, 259, 290–291

  Foxes, 179, 181

  France, 205, 281

  French, Jeffrey, 93–94, 173, 216

  French Guiana, 154

  Freud, Sigmund, 179

  G/wi San, 24

  Gaia (chimp), 235–236, 243

  Galagos, 86–87, 275

  Gambia, 108–109

  Games, 4–5, 54, 101, 112, 115, 133, 135–136

  Gathering societies. See Hunting-gathering societies

  Gaze direction, 51–52

  Gazing, 47–56, 60, 62, 112, 115, 120–121, 139

  Gender, “wrong,” 70–72

  Generosity, 5–6, 12, 14, 25–27, 80, 116, 133

  Genetics, 9, 12–13, 21, 28, 66, 72, 157, 186–187, 202–203, 247–250, 276, 280, 291–292

  Genghis Khan, 248

  Genocide, 28

  Georgia, 18, 284

  Germany, 103, 150, 262–263

  Germ line, 93

  Gestures, 22, 24, 40, 112

  Gibbons, 86

  Gift giving, 4, 12, 14–16, 20, 23–25, 27, 29, 272

  Giving impulses, 4, 12, 14–16, 21–26, 36, 66, 96–97, 175, 254, 293

  Globalization, 150, 153

  Golden lion tamarins, 98, 172–173, 222–223

  Gombe reserve, 35, 235–237, 243

  Goodall, Jane, 37, 234, 243, 279

  Good manners, 4

  Goodwill, 14–15

  Gorillas, 9, 33, 43, 53, 62, 65, 68–70, 72, 84, 86, 91, 101, 114, 160, 216, 233, 236–237, 239, 243–244, 249, 266, 275

  Gottlieb, Alma, 225–227

  Grandfathers, 265–267

  Grandmother hypothesis, 241–243, 255

  Grandmothers, 79–80, 103, 107, 130, 165, 194, 233, 245, 253, 272, 279; maternal, 16, 76, 87–90, 103–104, 108, 241, 247; morphing of, 257–260; kinds of help from, 260–261; maternal versus paternal, 261–264; demographic considerations, 267–269; end of usefulness, 270. See also Alloparents; Postreproductive women

  Grasping reflex, 72

  Great Apes, 3, 8–11, 17, 21–23, 25, 27, 29–31, 33, 43, 62, 68–70, 83, 86, 101, 161, 196–197, 216, 229–230, 234, 236, 238–240, 243, 249, 254, 275, 280, 283. See also Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gorillas; Orangutans

  Great aunts, 76, 80, 107, 247, 253

  Greeting ceremonies, 8

  Gremlin (chimp), 236, 243

  Grenada, 150

  Grooming protocols, 8, 55, 218, 272

  Ground squirrels, 93

  Growth rates, 101–102, 107–108, 166, 278

  Guatemala, 150

  Guenon monkeys, 86

  Gurche, John, 144

  Gusii, 131

  Hadza, 66, 76, 78, 106–107, 109, 149–150, 152, 157–158, 165, 171, 188, 204–205, 241, 245, 256, 259, 265

  Haida, 12

  Hamadryas baboons, 257

  Hamilton, William D., 177, 186–188, 190, 197, 242–243

  Hamlin, Kiley, 116

  Hamsters, 162, 169, 214–216

  Handbook of Attachment Theory, 83

  Hanse Institute for Advanced Study, 258

  Hanuman langurs, 3, 90

  Harcourt, Alexander H., 45, 160

  Harlow, Harry, 115, 118

  Harpending, Henry, 292

  Harvard Business School, 15

  Harvard University, 96, 148, 191

  Hauser, Marc, 96–97

  Hawaii, 27, 205

  Hawkes, K
risten, 106–107, 152, 241, 243, 255, 258, 268, 276

  Hawks, John, 292

  Helping, 4, 7, 25, 34, 36, 65, 116, 133, 197, 206, 254

  Hennighausen, Katherine, 285

  Henry, Paula Ivey, 107, 205, 256

  Henzi, Peter, 218

  Hewlett, Barry, 79, 112, 128–130, 132, 134–135, 163, 167–169

  Hill, Kim, 270, 282

  Himba, 24, 26, 50, 81

  Hinde, Robert, 118

  Hobson, Peter, 33–34, 38, 56

  Holding of infants, 43, 69–79, 84, 123, 128, 134–135, 165, 168–169

  Hölldobler, Bert, 175

  Homicide, 3–4, 19–21, 27, 46, 154, 270

  Hominin, formerly hominid, 17. See also specific members of Genus homo

  Homo erectus, 16–18, 148–149, 249, 255–256, 276, 278, 283–284

  Homo ergaster, 17–18, 149

  Homo floresiensis, 17–18

  Homo genus, 9, 11, 17, 28, 60, 62, 66, 102, 114, 207, 227, 231, 257, 275–276, 278

  Homo georgicus, 284

  Homo habilis, 17, 254–255

  Homo heidelbergensis, 17

  Homo neanderthalensis, 9, 17

  Homo rudolfensis, 17

  Homo sapiens, 17–18, 23, 28–30, 32, 109, 162, 176, 242, 254, 278, 283–284

  Homosexuality, 146

  Honeybees, 35, 179, 185–187, 271, 276

  Hormones, 39–40, 71–72, 98, 169–173, 212–214, 236–238

  Hospitality, 4, 23

  Households, female-headed, 150

  House mice, 181

  Howell, Nancy, 166

  Howler monkeys, 86, 228

  Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer, 91, 127; Mother Nature, 120, 167

  Hughes, T. H., 3

  Human genome project, 248

  Human Relations Area Files, 77, 240

  Hunter hypothesis, 147–149, 239

  Hunting-gathering societies, 11, 32, 62, 70, 78, 83, 85, 101, 105, 121, 123, 132, 135, 143–144, 147, 151, 154, 161, 198, 205–206, 236, 240, 244–247, 250, 254, 256, 260, 263, 266, 270, 279; African foragers, 12–16, 23, 44, 72, 75, 79, 106–107, 113, 124, 128–129, 133–134, 149–150, 163, 166–168, 171, 199, 204, 241–243, 265, 273; Pleistocene, 13, 19–20, 28, 67, 73, 109, 148, 166, 238–239, 249; Pliocene, 148, 255

  Hxaro, 14–15, 23, 266

  Hyenas, 82, 135, 181, 188, 194

  Hypersocial attributes, 4, 9, 19–21, 29–30

  Ifaluk atoll, 105, 107

  Imitation, 48–50, 52–61, 66

  Inbreeding, 196, 240

  Inclusive fitness, 187–188

  India, 3, 78, 87, 90, 133, 153, 251, 258–259, 263–264

  Indignation, 3

  Individualism, 5, 286

  Indonesia, 18, 222

  Indris, 86

  Infanticide, 46, 89, 99–100, 152, 158, 193–194, 204, 229, 233–236, 250

  Infants: reaction to facial expressions, 6–7, 40, 42, 47–50, 52–59, 62, 83, 114, 120–121; vocalizations of, 6, 40–41, 60–61, 76, 112–113, 115, 121–124; mortality rates, 16, 19, 31, 67, 89, 102, 105–109, 112, 121, 140, 152, 163, 166, 218–219, 226, 233, 258–264, 268, 286, 288–289; protection of, 18, 31, 140, 151–152, 159–161, 179, 187, 290; provisioning of, 18, 31, 92, 95–97, 99, 102, 109, 122, 140, 151–152, 158, 160–163, 166, 177–188, 198–199, 203, 220, 273, 275, 277, 279; costliness of, 21, 100–102, 146–148, 151, 153, 162, 180, 250, 270; maturation rates, 21, 29, 100–102, 140, 146–147, 151, 180, 230, 250, 270, 276–277, 287; signaling by, 37–38, 52, 117, 220, 230, 267; sensitivity of, 40, 112, 117–118; crying by, 42, 82–83, 170–171; holding of, 43, 69–79, 84, 123, 128, 134–135, 165, 168–169; weaning of, 43, 102, 116, 178, 182–183, 260, 273, 275, 280, 283; gazing by, 47–56, 60, 62, 112, 115, 119–121, 139; mind reading by, 47, 57, 131, 135–137, 139, 231; imitation by, 48–50, 52–61, 66; chimpanzee, 53–59, 61–62, 68–70, 80, 101, 112, 114, 120–123, 138, 225, 234–235; while sleeping, 53, 55, 130–131; smiling by, 55, 60–61, 76, 112; emotional needs of, 68, 79, 82–83, 115, 128, 132, 289–290; abandonment of, 70–73, 99–100, 103, 120; and foster care, 79, 195, 200–201, 211, 228–229, 259, 290–291; growth rates, 101–102, 108, 166, 278; need for physical contact, 112, 114–115, 118–122, 235, 285–286; separation from mothers, 114, 117–118, 120–122; assessment of others, 115–119, 121, 135–137; teething of, 122; in daycare, 124–126, 130–132, 288; empathy development in, 132, 286, 292; feelings about their environment, 132–135; innate responsiveness to, 212–215. See also Children

  Infant sharing, 76–79, 84, 91, 117, 220, 222, 225, 238–239, 246, 250

  Inheritance systems, 16, 265–266, 287

  Insects. See individual genera and species

  Institute for Genomic Biology, 202

  Intersubjectivity, 2, 11, 26, 28, 32, 34, 37, 43, 47, 58, 60, 66–67, 117, 131, 137–138, 176, 230–231, 275, 280–283, 285

  Interventions, supportive, 104

  Irrationality, 7

  Israel, 128–132

  Italy, 205

  Jackals, 181

  Japan, 54, 153, 205, 259, 263, 270

  Japanese macaques, 70–71, 253

  Jarvis, Jennifer, 186

  Java, 18, 222

  Jays, 169, 176–177, 181, 183, 198

  Jealousy, 3, 19, 155, 157, 260

  Jesuits, 157

  Johns, Chris, 182

  Johnson, Allen, 151

  Johnstone, Rufus, 207

  Jones, Susan, 58–59

  Ju/’hoansi, 12–16, 23, 27, 44, 72, 74–78, 109, 112–113, 115, 124, 127, 137, 147, 149, 165–168, 204, 242, 245, 260, 266, 274

  Kalahari desert, 12–14, 77

  Kamuniak (lion), 209–212

  Kaplan, Hillard, 101

  Kayapó, 10

  Kenya, 131, 150, 158, 209–210

  Keverne, Eric, 213

  Khasi, 258, 263–264

  Khoisan, 12

  Kibbutzim, 130–131

  Kidnapping, 195, 218, 237

  Killing. See Homicide; Infanticide

  Kin selection, 186, 212

  Kinship: networks (extended families), 6, 14–16, 20, 65, 103, 105, 131–132, 136, 164, 166, 288; and caregiving, 186–190, 197, 239–243; manufactured, 270–272. See also Families

  Kiss-feeding, 79, 81, 116

  Kissing, 76, 79

  Klein, Richard, 17

  Konner, Mel, 74–76

  Koryak, 12

  Kramer, Karen, 101

  Kuikuru, 154

  Kula ring, 12

  Kulina, 154–156

  !Kung. See Ju/’hoansi

  Kuni (bonobo), 34

  Kurland, Jeffrey, 268

  Kwakiutl, 12

  Lactation, 104, 126, 160, 213, 279; hormonal basis, 39–40, 72, 98, 169, 172; and bonding with infant, 73; nursing by mothers who carry infants, 75, 77; by allomothers, 76, 78, 80, 92, 135, 180–181, 226; and fathers, 98, 169–170; comfort suckling, 178; by wet nurses, 181, 194, 206; end of, 259–260. See also Weaning

  Lamb, Michael, 126, 128, 132, 134

  Langen, Tom, 182–183

  Language, 22, 24, 171–172, 272, 282; capacity for, 9, 37–38, 175, 280; development in humans, 11, 66, 123–124, 249, 280–281, 283; learned by child, 104, 116, 271. See also Vocalizations

  Langur monkeys, 3, 41, 71, 86, 90–91, 117, 213–214, 217–219, 222, 246, 250–253

  Larsen, Niko, 50

  Laughing, 60–61

  Lavelli, Manuela, 120

  Leaf-cutting ants, 191–192

  Leaf monkeys, 86, 91, 222

  Leakey, Richard, 33–34

  Leckman, James, 73

  Lee, Richard, 75

  Lemmons, Paul, 201

  Lemurs, 3, 86–87, 275

  Leonetti, Donna, 258, 263

  Leopards, 82, 135

  Lethal raiding, 19, 21, 46

  Leyendecker, Birgit, 134

  Life expectancy. See Longevity

  Life history theory, 101

  Life-history traits, 275–276

  Ligon, David, 199

  Lions, 93, 1
77–179, 181, 183, 209–212

  Locomotion, 8–9, 121

  Lomako site, 25

  Longevity, 16, 194, 197, 207, 241–243, 250, 254–255, 257, 267–268, 275–277

  Lorenz, Konrad, 221

  Lorises, 86–87

  Love, 68, 112–113, 116, 120

  Lusi, 153

  Lyons-Ruth, Karlen, 281, 285, 291

  Macaques, 35, 45, 47, 58–59, 68–71, 84, 86, 88–90, 213, 218, 220, 236–237, 253

  Mace, Ruth, 107–108, 258–259, 265, 267

  Machiavelli, Niccolò, 45

  Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis, 41, 45–47, 66, 279, 294

  Madagascar, 3, 87

  Magnetic resonance imaging, 4, 213

  Magpie jays, 181, 183, 198

  Main, Mary, 289

  Malawi, 150, 264

  Malaysia, 133, 222

  Malnutrition, 226, 260, 286, 288

  Mammals, evolution of, 39–41, 68. See also individual genera and species

  Mandinka, 107–109, 258–259

  Mandrills, 86

  Mardu, 245–246

  Marginalization of elders, 270

  Marlowe, Frank, 150, 153, 157–158, 165, 267

  Marmosets, 51, 86, 131, 140, 158, 161–162, 169, 172, 174, 176, 179, 181, 187, 192, 194, 202–203, 214, 222–224, 240, 262, 270; cooperative breeding in, 92–97, 99–101, 122, 156, 173

  Marriage, 15–16, 132, 146, 153, 155, 245–246

  Maternal grandmothers, 16, 76, 87, 90, 103–104, 108, 165, 241, 247, 261–264

  Mating, 5, 11, 20–22, 25, 93, 147–148, 156, 160, 188, 247–250

  Matis, 154

  Matriarchy, 254

  Matrilineal kin, 16, 103, 155, 196, 238, 241, 245–250, 254, 258, 264–265, 279

  Matrilocal kin, 90, 164, 239–240, 244–246, 248, 250, 254, 258, 264, 279

  Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 44, 54–57, 61, 236

  Maturation rates, 21, 29, 100–102, 140, 146–147, 151, 180, 230, 250, 270, 276–277, 287

  Mauss, Marcel: Essai sur le don, 12

  Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 35–36

  Maya, 101

  Mbuti, 76, 133–134

  McAuliffe, Katherine, 184

  McHenry, Henry, 17

  Mead, Margaret, 143

  Medical anthropology, 258

  Medical Research Council, 107

  Medicinal plants, 256–257

  Meehan, Courtney, 163–165

  Meerkats, 80, 173, 176, 179, 181, 183–184, 192–194, 203, 205–206, 214, 262, 282

  Mehinaku, 154

  Melanesia, 12

  Meltzoff, Andrew, 48–50, 52–53, 57–58

  Memory, 8–9, 34, 40

  Menarche, 207, 274, 287

  Menopause, 207, 241–243, 250–255, 257–259, 267–268, 275–277

 

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