When a visualiser is introduced to someone at a party, they often visualise the name written on the face of that person. When remembering information in an exam, they often picture their study notes exactly in the position they appeared on the page – for example, on the top right. Kanji was invented for visualisers, because they natural y think in images. If they like to draw and have a mind for art analysis, they will be in their element drawing kanji and analysing the meaning in relation to the radicals. They should also be able to memorise the phonetics and put them into practice with relative ease. They should also be able to see the same shapes and patterns that I have catalogued in Chapter 4, The Visual Code.
The way kanji are introduced doesn’t necessarily make the best use of these tendencies. In my teaching experience, a key factor to help students learn is enjoyment. If they have fun while they are studying, they are more likely to remember the content, and self-motivation grows. Of course, what is enjoyable varies between learners.
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The theory of cognitive profiles has been used to analyse how students prefer to write compositions (Tucker, 1995). While verbaliser students respond well when instructed to simply start writing in class, this approach did not work for the visualisers, who preferred to delay the moment when drafting began (Tucker, 1995). This delay is as important as the writing itself, and seems to work like an ‘incubation’ period (Tucker, 1995, p. 28). Flower and Hayes (1984) theorise that for visualisers, invention is not a logical or verbal process necessarily but instead involves imagery, analogy and schema (Flower & Hayes, 1984). They need to understand the associations between the parts in order to prepare the whole.
Tucker’s attitude to teaching writing started to change once he saw it through the eyes of visualisers, whose minds seem to work better when given time to reflect quietly, group ideas and doodle. He also observes that visualisers have a better view of the ‘big picture’ and are able to visualise the rest of the document without seeing it in front of them. If kanji learning can be reframed with the visualiser learner in mind, it would keep all of these factors in mind; an approach which could be beneficial to visualisers and other learners.
For example, since OVs use imagery, analogy and schema, they are in a perfect position to memorise the radicals and learn the meaning of kanji words by considering the analogous connections and metaphorical combinations in creating the meaning of kanji and the words created from their combination. Their propensity for grouping ideas would work well with the approach listed here of grouping phonetics and kanji by visual similarity.
If they like to see the ‘big picture’, then perhaps learning more kanji, while being shown the connections between them, will be more effective than the traditional ‘drip feed’ kanji teaching method, where students are exposed to small amounts of kanji at a time, depriving them of the opportunity to make connections between readings, meanings and visual form.
Object visualisers like still images, colour and shape Recent literature in the field of behavioural and neuropsychology has looked at how different cognitive styles relate to working memory (WM). Li et al.
(2011) proposed that the visualiser dimension be further subdivided into object visualisers (OV) and spatial visualisers (SV) (Li et al., 2011). OVs habitual y use visual properties (e.g. colour and shape) to construct high-resolution objects and scenes, while SVs are more likely to use imagery to represent and transform spatial relations. Literature suggests that people with a particular type are more likely to work in certain professions.
For example, visual artists are more likely to be OVs, and physics and engineering scientists tend to be SVs (Li et al., 2011). OVs were found to have higher neural efficiency than SVs in processing object tasks and were better able to memorise object information when the demands on memory were high (Li et al., 2011).
ABOUT THIS BOOK
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This could indicate that SVs prefer to learn with video games and animations within apps, while OVs prefer to have time to absorb visual information about kanji and their components in a static form such as a book or poster. By breaking down the elements of kanji into ‘bite-size chunks’, displaying them with different colours and drawing attention to their shapes, OVs will be able to use their natural visual processing abilities to learn kanji. By pointing out the similarities between kanji that contain the same phonetics and visual features like shapes and stripes, the OV’s natural tendency to make associations between parts will be enhanced and supported.
As an OV, my learning style has a strong visual preference and relatively poor aural recollection. Learning a second language was therefore reliant on being able to visualise the words, and I intuitively knew that I would not make much progress with my Japanese until I had learnt a significant number of kanji and was able to visualise the words as I spoke and listened.
Seeing learning framed in these two dimensions made sense to me. Rather than a ‘one-size-fits-al ’ approach to kanji teaching, clearly different approaches will appeal to different learners.
A good ear: the need for visual aids
In second-language acquisition, phonological memory (PM) has been said to reflect a learner’s ability to process the phonological aspects of language.
PM is defined as one sub-component of WM, and is referred to in the various literature as verbal short-term memory, phonological working memory, phonological short-term memory and phonological loop. It refers to the memory of sound, and is used when remembering, processing and learning language. Individuals display varying levels of PM, with some people having good PM, which could be described as having ‘a good ear’, and others having low PM. Low PM has been associated with dyslexia and learning disabilities (Snowling, 2000).
One study found that Finnish children with a strong PM in non-word repetition tests were found to be better at learning English as a second language (Service, 1992) and PM can be a strong predictor of second-language achievement, in particular vocabulary acquisition (Hummel
& French, 2010). While individuals might have an inherent potential for PM capacity, their processing efficiency could be improved through training (Hummel & French, 2010).
In language classroom, aural-input contexts, students rely heavily on PM
(Hummel & French, 2010). This is a reflection of the fact that language classes are usual y presented in spoken format, and students are required to learn on the go from the aural input. Students with weak PM may fall behind, as their ability to learn from simply listening is weaker than students with a good PM. However, providing more visual stimulus could reduce 24
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their reliance on PM and free up cognitive resources to process other elements of language, including syntactic patterns and semantic content (Hummel & French, 2010).
Other strategies suggested that may help students with poor PM include reducing the amount of material to be remembered, repeating key information, encouraging the use of memory aids and developing a child’s own strategies to support memory (Gathercole and Alloway, 2008, p. 69). Phonological, lexical and semantic associations between a student’s first and second languages also reduce the ‘processing load’
– that is, the mental strain taken to learn the new language – on PM
because they rely more on long-term knowledge (Hummel & French, 2010).
Chun and Payne (2004) found that individuals with a low PM capacity looked up words three times as much as others, but performed much the same overall on the comprehension and vocabulary tasks, implying that compensation occurs. This prompted them to suggest the use of multimedia CD-ROMs for learning German, to allow learners with low PM to look up words and definitions. With the rise of the Internet and computer games, Japanese second-language teachers have investigated the efficacy of designing computer games that encourage the mastery of the semantic components of kanji (Harris, 2011). While computer games with moving objects may be an ideal learning aid for SVs, OVs may prefer images p
resented in a visual y pleasing, quiet and static format.
The literature on PM adds another angle to the subject of kanji teaching.
Because of the common belief that learning kanji is the most difficult aspect of learning Japanese, most kanji learning is delayed until students are at an advanced level. However, I would argue the value of teaching more kanji at an earlier stage, and providing useful clues to how to read them, could assist learners with a low PM to compensate by using kanji as an auxiliary visual aid. Rather than ‘scaring learners off’, showing them a lot of kanji at the start but pointing out the patterns will give them a sense that there is light at the end of the tunnel. They can see where they are and where they need to go, and they have been given plenty of clues for the journey.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
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CHAPTER 1 – THE SCRIPTS AND THEIR SOUNDS
文字
と
音
CHAPTER 1 – THE SCRIPTS AND THEIR SOUNDS
CHAPTER 1 – THE SCRIPTS AND THEIR SOUNDS
Kanji was first introduced to Japan in the 5th century, when classical Chinese texts and Buddhist sutras were imported into the country.
Before this there was no writing system in Japan, but there was a lively spoken language and culture. Hiragana and katakana were created later as a phonetic script. We will learn more about the surprising origin of hiragana and katakana in Chapter 2, The Kana Code.
Japanese is often referred to as having three types of scripts, but I think this description is misleading. I prefer to split it up into two scripts to reflect the different information they represent and function they perform.
1. Kana (Hiragana and Katakana)
Representing sound only
Hiragana and katakana (referred to collectively in this book as kana) are a purely phonetic script in which each symbol represents a single sound – much like the English alphabet. Each sound is only one syl able in length, for example, a, ka, sa, ta, ma. The only symbol that doesn’t include a vowel sound is N. The 46 hiragana symbols and 46 katakana symbols can be learnt relatively quickly by associating one sound with each symbol.
2. Kanji
Representing sound & meaning
Kanji is a logographic script that represents both sound and meaning.
There is a much broader range of sounds that can be applied to kanji characters, ranging from a one syl able sound like that of a kana (KA, MU) to two syl able sounds (KAKU, BETSU), right through to whole words with multiple syl ables (katachi, hitsuji). Crucial y, in addition to its sound, each kanji character carries a meaning.
This could be a noun, verb or something more abstract. Moreover, this meaning is not completely fixed, but is somewhat mutable –
that is, its meaning can change depending on how the kanji character is combined with kana or other kanji. Needless to say, memorising kanji characters and their associated sounds and meanings is a more mental y demanding task than learning the kana symbols and their sounds.
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KANA
Hiragana ひらがな
平仮名
simplified script
The first character 平 means flat and level, and in this context means simple or simplified. The second and third characters 仮名 mean script.
Hiragana represent 46 unique sounds and are among the first things students learn when they study Japanese. They are used mainly for native Japanese words and grammatical features such as particles and verb endings.
Visual y, hiragana are rounded and fluid.
Hiragana Reading
あ
a
か
ka
た
ta
ま
ma
Hiragana tend to appear as every third character or so in a Japanese sentence, so they also perform the purpose of breaking up the text and providing pauses between words written in kanji. For example, hiragana have been underlined in the sentence below.
私は日本人です。 Watashi wa nihonjin desu. I am Japanese.
Historical y, hiragana was used for personal notes, while kanji was used for official documents.
Hiragana’s role in Japanese literature
During the Heian period from 794–1185, women were officially banned from learning kanji and could therefore only write in hiragana. The script was widely used among court women, and was known as women’s writing 女手 (onnade) – a combination of the characters for woman and hand.
In fact, the world’s first novel was written entirely in hiragana by a lady-in-waiting during the Heian period. Completed around 1021, The Tale of Genji 源氏物語 (Genji monogatari) is considered one of the great works of Japanese literature. It sheds light on court life at the time, and tells the story of the handsome and brilliant son of a Japanese emperor, Hikaru Genji. The author’s real name is unknown but scholars have dubbed her Murasaki Shikibu, based on characters in the book.
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CHAPTER 1 – THE SCRIPTS AND THEIR SOUNDS
Katakana カタカナ
片仮名
fragment
script
The first kanji character 片means fragment, which refers to the fact that each katakana symbol is a fragment taken from a kanji character. The second and third characters 仮名mean script.
Visual y, katakana symbols are more angular than hiragana. They represent the same 46 sounds as hiragana, and are in this sense an exact replica. You could almost go so far as to call them a different font, since in many cases the forms of hiragana and katakana look similar but for style.
Hiragana Katakana Reading
う
ウ
u
か
カ
ka
き
キ
ki
こ
コ
ko
も
モ
mo
Katakana was first used by Buddhist monks as a kind of crib note to show the readings of the kanji that appeared in Buddhist scriptures. In fact, they were used in much the same way that furigana is used today (tiny hiragana characters that sit on top of kanji characters when it is assumed that the reader might not know the reading).
Today, katakana is still used in dictionaries to show the readings of kanji characters. Its other main functions include writing ‘loan’ words from other languages, such as アカウント(akaunto) from the English ‘account’, writing onomatopoeia which features heavily in manga cartoons, and for visual emphasis in advertising and packaging.
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KANJI 漢字
Chinese character
The first character 漢 means Chinese and also refers to the Han Dynasty. The second character 字 means character or letter.
As mentioned earlier, kanji are powerful characters jam-packed with sound and meaning information.
Take the following examples, which show the sound and meaning of four kanji characters.
Kanji
Sound
Meaning
ON reading
Kun reading
木
MOKU
ki
tree
彩
SAI
irodo(ru)
colouring
時
JI
toki
time
行
KOU, GYOU,
i(ku), yu(ku),
go
AN
okona(u)
Each character has a sound attached to it – an ON reading and a Kun reading. They also each represent a meaning. That is a lot of information contained in a single kanji character.
In terms of visual style, kanji characters can vary greatly. They can be simple or complex; angular or rounded; geometrical or fluid; symmetrical or asymmetrical; ordered or chaotic. They are general y more comple
x than kana, although it should be noted that some of the simplest kanji are even simpler than some kana. For example, the character for the number one is a single stroke, 一.
Kanji are used to write nouns, verbs and other key vocabulary. They can appear on their own, with hiragana to complete a word (okurigana) or with other kanji in compound words. The majority of compound words contain two kanji characters, but they can also contain three or four. Yojijukugo are set phrases such as proverbs and sayings comprised of four kanji characters.
Each kanji character can be broken down into smaller components, and the way these components work together to convey sound and meaning is quite logical. The more of these components you know, the less you need to rote learn the meanings and readings. You can learn them systematical y, looking for clues within a kanji character, and using association as a key tool.
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The kanji readings
There are two possible readings for each kanji character: the Chinese reading and the Japanese reading.
音読み
Chinese reading
on yomi
1. I refer to the Chinese reading as the ON reading, but its full Japanese name is on yomi. It is an adaptation of a kanji character’s Chinese reading using Japanese pronunciation. For example, the Japanese reading for 明 is MEI, which is based on the Chinese reading MING (as in Ming Dynasty).
It’s a bit like how akaunto is an adaptation of the English word account.
訓読み
Japanese reading
kun yomi
2. I refer to the Japanese reading as the kun reading, but its full Japanese name is kun yomi. It is the existing Japanese word that corresponds to an imported kanji character. For example, hitsuji was the Japanese word for sheep 羊. Since the word already existed, when the kanji character was imported this reading was simply tacked onto the character.
Another way to look at it is to see the kun reading as the Japanese translation. For example, when we say that 羊 means sheep, we are simply translating it into English. The same process was followed when applying the word hitsuji, the Japanese ‘translation’ of this kanji character.
The Kanji Code Page 3