by Rahul Mitra
Amaravati A town in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. It was a prominent city from Buddhist times. After the fall of the Mauryas, Amaravati achieved prominence as the capital of the Satavahana Empire.
Amatya A minister—the kings of ancient India were usually advised and helped by a group of ministers and officials looking after different departments such as revenue, agriculture, justice, and diplomacy. In the Arthashastra, Chanakya himself has mentioned a few qualities for an ideal amatya appointee.
Ananda Vihara Viharas were basically monasteries, where monks would take shelter during the rainy season. Later, they evolved into permanent structures and places for imparting education. Some viharas evolved into important Buddhist universities, such as Nalanda. It is interesting to note that the name of the Indian state of Bihar comes from vihara, probably because the region was dotted with numerous viharas. Ananda Vihara refers to a Buddhist monastery constructed of bricks in Pataliputra; the remains of which have been found in Kumhrar on the outskirts of Patna.
Arahant A perfected person, or someone who has attained Nirvana. In everyday usage, senior monks (as discerned by the colour of their robes) are sometimes referred to as Arahants.
Arigaon, Pushkalavati and Aranya Pura This refers to Ora, Peucalaotis, and Aornos all of them fort towns, which were subjugated on the way. The forts of Ora and Aornos were taken after a bitter fight, while Pushkalavati surrendered and its chieftain joined the Greek armies.
Arya A term of respect used in ancient India, for men of high birth. In such usage, there was no racial connotation attached to it.
‘As a King treats another King’ This statement, attributed to Porus, who said it to Alexander after the battle, seems to point to a truce or alliance between the two kings, rather than an outright victory for Alexander.
While all major historians hold that Porus was defeated by Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes, I do not find it inconceivable that the battle ended in a truce. Perhaps, its just my national pride that makes me think this way, but here are the reasons I believe Alexander did not defeat Porus. They are:
•As a King treats another King: This statement itself does not sound as one uttered by a captured, defeated and wounded captive. It means Porus was still the King of his realm—he had not lost his crown.
•Porus was restored to his kingdom: This circumstance too seems suspicious to me. Alexander is said to have restored his kingdom to Porus out of generosity and admiration for his bravery. My question is, where was this generosity, when it came to the defenders of Tyre, of Massaga, or the rebels in Bactria? Each of these parties had defended their cities bravely and relentlessly.
•Within twenty years of this decisive defeat, India was able to throw out Alexander’s successor Seleucus beyond its borders. The vaunted discipline of the phalanxes, which held firm under the pressure of the elephants of Porus, did not seem to avail much to Seleucus who entered into a treaty with Chandragupta Maurya where he ceded him territory, gave his own daughter in marriage to Chandragupta, and in turn, received five hundred elephants.
Also, keep in mind the following points. The Seleucid state (the same one that could not hold onto Alexander’s Indian possessions), proved to be the strongest among all the successor states of Alexander’s empire. While Greek warriors who had never seen elephants were (supposedly) able to tackle them with aplomb at Hydaspes, the five hundred elephants that Seleucus received from Chandragupta Maurya, allowed him to defeat all the other Greek successor states at the Battle of Ipsus. In fact, a hundred years later, Hannibal was able to terrorize entire Roman armies with just twenty elephants. Yet, we are told that in India, the Greeks handled Porus’s elephants fairly easily.
•Alexander rode his favourite horse Bucephalas into every battle, but it was only at this battle that his horse was killed, presumably from right under him.
•The reasons behind the refusal of his army to go further into India at the River Hydaspes (Beas), also seems suspicious. The men apparently, were weary of war and wanted to go back to see their families. Yet, now we know for a fact, that a considerable portion of Alexander’s armies were fresh recruits from Macedonia and newly raised troops from Persia and Central Asia. In fact, many of the veterans had been discharged at Ecbatana once before, and these were not the men whom Greek historians maintain, had grown old and were weary of war.
Added to this, another curious circumstance—a few years later, at Opis, when Alexander wanted to discharge the veterans and injured from his army, they actually revolted at his decision. Did their appetite for war return, once they were back in territories firmly in Alexander’s control? Did they, all of a sudden, no longer wish to see their families and children back in Macedonia?
•In fact, every bit of research I have done about Alexander’s India campaign, points to the fact that India proved to be an extremely tough nut to crack for the Greeks. Consider the number of times Alexander was injured in India (in the ankle, shoulder, and in his chest at Multan). In fact, many historians hold that the fever he died of was, because of an infection from a wound he had received in India. Even his horse Bucephalas died in India.
Consider the fact, that Alexander showed an inordinately cruel streak in India (far more than what he was capable of, in his earlier campaigns). Whole populations of rebels and defenders were massacred. This might be ascribed to the dogged and unrelenting quality of the opposition he faced here.
Consider even the fact that Alexander apparently gifted Ambhi almost 1000 talents of gold as a present to seal their alliance. 1000 talents amounts to almost 25 tonnes of gold, and it only indicates that Most of all, while the Greeks retained many of their Persian, Babylonian, and Egyptian conquests for many centuries, they could not hold on to their Indian territories for more than twenty years.
Ashtapada A board game that appeared in a list of games that the Buddha would not play. It could be played by two to four players, and had some similarities to the later Chaturanga, which gave rise to chess.
Assakas/Asmakas One of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient India, the Assaka Janapada was located south of the Vindhyas, roughly corresponding to the regions of Nizamabad, Azimabad, Nanded, and Yavatmal in present-day Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Avantis They were also one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, and corresponded to the Malwa region of present day India.
B
Bahlika Also known as Zariaspa, this was the ancient city of Balkh or Bactria in northern Afghanistan. The founder of Zoroastrianism was said to be from this region. Today’s Bahls of Punjab are descendants of the ancient Bahlikas. They were frequently mentioned in the ancient Indian texts and I have used them to describe the Bactrians to who accompanied Alexander’s army.
Bali, bhaga, and shulka These were different types of taxes collected by the State during this period. Bhaga was levied on agricultural produce and cattle, at the rate of one-sixth of total produce, while bali is supposed to be a tax levied on the amount of land cultivated.
Bhaand They were the traditional folk entertainers of India and the term could be applied to jesters, storytellers, and actors. Satire was a big part of their repertoire and they usually travelled from one village to another, with their performances.
Bhaja Vihara The name Bhaja Vihara has been taken from the twenty-two rock-cut caves near Lonavla.
Bhante It means ‘venerable Sir’, and is a polite form of addressing Buddhist monks.
Bhikshaam dehi ‘Bhikshaam Dehi’ or ‘Bhavati Bhikshaam Dehi’ basically means ‘give me alms’. Brahmacharis or young male students, ascetics and monks, i.e., all those who had cut off their ties with the material world, depended upon larger society to fulfill their minimal needs. They would go from door to door with a begging bowl chanting out bhikshaam dehi to the lady of the house. Even Buddha himself did this, and it is this practice that can be said to be the root of the Buddhist term for monks and nuns (Bhikkhu for males and Bhikkhuni for females).
Bhoosa Broken straw and husk, generall
y used as fodder.
Bharukaccha Known to the Greeks and Romans as Barigaza, this was the ancient name of Bharuch in Gujarat. It was an important ship-building centre and seaport to countries to the west of India. Many goods from the far-east were regularly shipped here during the monsoons, making the city a terminus for several key land-sea trade routes.
Brahmi/Kharoshti Brahmi and Kharoshti were two major writing systems in ancient India. While Kharoshti was derived from the Aramaic script and was written from right to left, Brahmi, whose origin is disputed, was written from left to right. Interestingly, Brahmi gave rise to Devanagari, Tibetan, Sarada (Kashmiri), as well as the Javanese script in Indonesia, the Khmer alphabet in Cambodia, Mon script in Burma as well as the Phags-pa script of the Mongol empire.
C
Chanakya was a Jain While it is commonly believed that Chanakya was a Hindu (Vedic Brahmin), a number of Jain works, which contain the most detailed descriptions of Chanakya legend, hold that Chanakya as well as Chandragupta were both Jains. Both of them famously died in a typically Jain manner, by undertaking Santhara, ritual fasting to death.
Chandals They were the lowest group in the Indian caste system, and were designated as untouchables. They usually lived on the edges of settlements and engaged in occupations such as weaving rush-mats and hunting. Over time, they came to be associated with the disposal of corpses.
Charaka Referred to, as the father of medicine, he was one of the sages credited with developing Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of healing. He is the author of the Charaka Samhita and the first physician to describe the systems of digestion, metabolism, and immunity. While there is considerable controversy over the details of his life, some authorities contend that he studied in Takshashila and was a contemporary of Chanakya. If this is true, this would place him in Takshashila at the time of Alexander’s invasion. This interesting possibility, led me to fictionalize him as a student who befriends the hero of this novel.
Cheetal Spotted deer, which commonly inhabits the wooded regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Chitt In Indian wrestling, known as Malla Yuddh, the objective is to pin your opponent to the ground in such a way that both his shoulder blades are pinned to the ground. When that happens, the opponent is said to be chitt or defeated. The word has since spread into common usage to indicate defeat or submission, such as in the phrase ‘chaaron khaane chit’ or all four points pinned down.
Cuirass Armour that is worn to protect the wearer’s upper body or torso. It can be formed from a single or multiple pieces of metal, or other rigid material, and is usually connected to a back piece.
D
Dandakaranya A vast forested region of ancient India, which finds mention in the literature of this time, as well as in the Ramayana. The area of Dandakaranya included parts of present-day Chattisgarh, Maharshtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
Description of the Greeks Alexander the Great strongly promoted shaving in his armies, and this lack of facial hair, and keeping short hair among his troops, was a source of considerable amazement to the ancient Indians.
Description of Indians Various Greek writers accompanying Alexander commented that the Indians were taller than any other people in the world. Alexander’s admiral Nearchus said, “Physically, the Indians are slim. They are tall and much lighter in weight than other men. They wear earrings of ivory, they dye their beards, some of them were whitest of white, others dark blue, red, or purple, or even green. Their clothes are of linen, either brighter than all other linen, or made to seem so by the people’s dark skin; they dress in a tunic down to the mid-calf and throw an outer mantle around their shoulders; another is wound around their head.
Dystros One of the months in the ancient Macedonian calendar. It would roughly correspond to the months of February and March in the Julian calendar.
E
Ecbatana An ancient city in Western Iran, located near the modern city of Hamadan, it was the capital of the Median Empire, before being conquered by Cyrus the Great, who established the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Ecbatana continued to serve as the summer capital under the Achaemenids.
Elephants in ancient Indian armies India is thought to be the first place where elephants were trained for combat purposes. Indian armies of this period were divided into four main divisions— infantry, elephants, chariots, and archers. Elephants were highly valued by the armies of different Janapadas. In terms of their usage and impact during battle, the war elephants of this era have been compared to the tanks used by modern armies.
F
Faravahr is one of the best known symbols of Zoroastrianism, which was the state religion of the Acheamenid dynasty. This symbol is prominently featured in many royal inscriptions and buildings of pre-islamic Iran, as well as in Parsee homes and temples. In present-day Zoroastrianism, the faravahr is said to be a reminder of one’s purpose in life, which is to live in such a way that the soul progresses towards frasho-kereti, or union with Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity.
G
Gahapati Literally meaning ‘Head of the Household’, this term is frequently referenced in literature from this period. It is usually applied to wealthy landowners, particularly those who employed non-kin labour called dasas and karmakaras. Judging from the references as well, the rural, agriculture-based economies of that time, they were probably wealthy and influential, providing patronage to Brahmins and Buddhist monks, as well as taxes to the state. The smaller farmers with limited land-holdings, i.e., those who typically worked the land themselves, were known as kassakas/krishakas.
Gaja Unit of length used in different parts of Asia. Historically, it was a regionally variable measurement, similar to the English ‘yard’. Gaja was apparently introduced to India by the Mughals, so using it in this story is just a licence taken by me.
Ganarajyas Contrary to popular conception, ganarajyas in ancient India were not exactly democracies, but more like tribal oligarchies, where all members of a particular tribe or clan, or even a confederacy of different tribes shared power through an assembly or council of elders. Janapadas that had this system of governance were typically more fractious and suffered from periods of internal turmoil and power struggles, as different cliques fought for control over the council of elders. Due to this, most of these ganarajyas or janasanghas were later swallowed up by monarchies and this system of governance was able to survive only in mountainous and inaccessible areas.
Gandhari The form of Prakrit spoken in the North Western regions of India was different from the Ardha Magadhi spoken in the eastern regions of India. This same split was seen later, as the difference between Shauraseni Prakrit spoken in the North West and Magadhi or Magahi spoken in the Eastern regions of India. However, both languages having evolved from Sanskrit were closely related. Over time, Shauraseni Prakrit gave rise to the languages of Hindi, Hindustani based on the khari boli dialect and Punjabi. On the other hand, Magadhi gave rise to the Eastern Indian languages of Bihari (Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Magahi), Bengali, Oriya, and Assamese.
Gandharva In Indian mythology, gandharvas are heavenly beings akin to nature spirits of other mythologies. They are renowned for their prowess as musicians and act as messengers for the gods.
Ghat Ghat means a riverbank with steps built on the sides that lead down to the water. Such ghats have been constructed along riverbanks in India since ancient times for purposes of bathing, washing clothes, or ritual baths associated with religious observance.
Ghositarama Monastery One of the most important, early monasteries associated with the life of the Buddha, the Ghositarama monastery, was built by a rich merchant of Kaushambi called Ghosita. Buddha himself visited Kaushambi and even stayed in the Ghositarama monastery on a number of occasions. It was a combined chaitya-cum-vihara with a number of cells for monks, a small shrine room with verandas, and pillars enclosing a huge courtyard with a massive stupa.
Gurukul Made up of the two words guru (teacher/expert) and kula (extended family). In India, before the foundation of
universities during the Buddhist period, independent masters or experts of specific subjects would set up schools in their own homes and cottages, and provide instruction to pupils. Traditionally, the students would live with their gurus and help by carrying out chores in the homestead. Knowledge was thought to be too precious to be sold, and so there was no commercial exchange involved, though it was customary for graduating students to give Guru Dakshina or offerings to the Guru according to their families’ financial status, after their studies were completed.
H
Haat These were weekly marketplaces or fairs held in the villages of rural India. They usually drew buyers and merchants from a number of surrounding villages.
Hecatompylos This means ‘a hundred gates’, and refers to an ancient city located in Iran. The city later became the capital of the Parthian Empire.
Hydaspes River Jhelum, known to the ancient Indians as the Vitasta, was called Hydaspes by the Greeks. Hence, the famous battle between Alexander and Porus fought on the banks of this river is known as the Battle of the Hydaspes.
I
Indraprastha There is evidence of continuous habitation in Delhi and its surrounding areas since the sixth century BC. Indraprastha is said to be the first city built here (speculated to be located in present-day Purana Qila area, New Delhi), by the Pandavas of the Mahabharata..