165 John Francis Bannon, “Herbert Eugene Bolton—Western Historian,” Western Historical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (1971): 268; Helen Delpar, Looking South: The Evolution of Latin Americanist Scholarship in the United States, 1850–1975 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2008), p. 28.
166 Hurtado, “Bolton and Turner,” pp. 9–10; Delpar, Looking South, pp. 41–42.
167 Herbert Eugene Bolton, The Spanish Borderlands: A Chronicle of Old Florida and the Southwest (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1921). Bolton’s work today—when it is discussed—comes under fire for what it does not do and who it does not include, particularly indigenous people. Despite its shortcomings, Bolton did influence and develop the idea of borderlands, Latin American, and hemispheric studies.
168 “The Epic of Greater America,” in John Francis Bannon (ed.), Bolton and the Spanish Borderlands (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), p. 302. Also on Bolton, the frontier, and borderlands, see Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron, “From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States, and the Peoples in Between in North American History,” American Historical Review 104, no. 3 (1999): 814–41.
169 Franklin D. Roosevelt, Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14473 (accessed October 10, 2016).
170 Susannah Joel Glusker, Anita Brenner: A Mind of Her Own (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), pp. viii–27.
171 Ibid., p. 26.
172 Anita Brenner and George R. Leighton (photos), The Wind That Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1942 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), p. 4.
173 “Anita Brenner, Wrote on Mexico: Author and Journalist Dies—Detailed Life of Indians,” New York Times, December 3, 1974.
Chapter 13: New York
1 Mitchell Codding, “Archer Milton Huntington, Champion of Spain in the United States,” in Richard L. Kagan (ed.), Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), p. 147.
2 Mike Wallace, “Nueva York: The Back Story: New York City and the Spanish-Speaking World from Dutch Days to the Second World War,” in Edward J. Sullivan (ed.), Nueva York, 1613–1945 (New York: Scala and New-York Historical Society, 2010), pp. 59–61.
3 James D. Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” in Sullivan, Nueva York, 1613–1945, p. 220.
4 Richard L. Kagan, “Blame It on Washington Irving: New York’s Discovery of the Art and Architecture of Spain,” in Sullivan, Nueva York, 1613–1945, pp. 162–64; Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930.” See also Kagan, Spain in America.
5 “City’s Spanish Colony Lives in Its Own Little World Here,” New York Times, March 23, 1924.
6 Ibid.
7 Wallace, “Nueva York,” p. 59.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid., pp. 62–63.
10 Ana Maria Varela-Lago, “Conquerors, Immigrants, Exiles: The Spanish Diaspora in the United States (1848–1948)” (PhD diss., University of California, San Diego, 2008), pp. 65–69.
11 Federico García Lorca, Christopher Maurer (ed.), and Greg Simon and Steven F. White (trans.), Poet in New York (New York: Penguin Classics, 2002), p. 202.
12 Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” p. 225.
13 García Lorca, Poet in New York, p. 11.
14 Ibid., p. 189.
15 Ibid., p. 212; Fernández, “The Discovery of Spain in New York, circa 1930,” pp. 226–27.
16 Gabriel Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City: Early 19th Century to the 1990s,” in Claudio Iván Remeseira (ed.), Hispanic New York: A Sourcebook (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 37.
17 Jonathan Gill, Harlem: The Four Hundred Year History from Dutch Village to Capital of Black America (New York: Grove Press, 2011), pp. 211–18.
18 Club Cubano Inter-Americano, Inc. Records, New York Public Library Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, 1945, Manuscript and Rare Books Division, Box 1, Folder 1, “Proyeto de Reglamento,” November 1945.
19 Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City,” p. 37; Wallace, “Nueva York,” p. 64; Peter Kihss, “Flow of Puerto Ricans Here Fills Jobs, Poses Problems,” New York Times, February 23, 1953; David F. García, “Contesting That Damned Mambo: Arsenio Rodríguez and the People of El Barrio and the Bronx in the 1950s,” in Miriam Jiménez Román and Juan Flores (eds.), The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2010), p. 190.
20 Exhibition: “Shaping Puerto Rican Identity: Selections from the DivEdCo Collection at Centro Library & Archives,” accessed November 2014, Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, Hunter College, City University of New York.
21 Ibid.
22 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 63.
23 Haslip-Viera, “The Evolution of the Latino Community in New York City,” p. 37.
24 Gill, Harlem, p. 219.
25 Armando Rendon, “El Puertorriqueño: No More, No Less,” Civil Rights Digest 1, no. 3 (Fall 1968): 30.
26 Ibid.
27 Judith Ortiz Cofer, The Line of the Sun (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1989), pp. 171–72.
28 Rafael Angel Marín to Israel Weinstein, October 22, 1947, Oscar García Rivera Collection, Hunter Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, New York, 1947, Series IV: Subject Files, Box 2, Folder 9.
29 Jorge Duany, “Transnational Migration from the Dominican Republic: The Cultural Redefinition of Racial Identity,” Caribbean Studies 29, no. 2 (1996): 254.
30 Bernardo Vega, “Al Margen de la Lucha,” Alma Boricua (New York), October 1934, p. 8.
31 Julia Alvarez, How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents (New York: Plume, 1992), p. 139.
32 Ed Morales, The Latin Beat: Rhythms and Roots of Latin Music from Bossa Nova to Salsa and Beyond (New York: Da Capo Press, 2003), p. xviii.
33 Ruth Glasser, “From ‘Indianola’ to ‘Ño Colá’: The Strange Career of the Afro-Puerto Rican Musician,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States, p. 157.
34 Gill, Harlem, p. 324.
35 Gustavo Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2010), p. 51.
36 Ibid., pp. 55–56.
37 Morales, The Latin Beat, pp. 5–6.
38 Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, p. 60.
39 Glasser, “From ‘Indianola’ to ‘Ño Colá,’” p. 170.
40 Morales, The Latin Beat, pp. 34–35.
41 Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, pp. 103–5.
42 García, “Contesting That Damned Mambo,” p. 187.
43 For more on “latune,” see Pérez Firmat, The Havana Habit, pp. 53–55.
44 For more on “mamboid,” see ibid., pp. 110–11.
45 Ibid., pp. 116–17.
46 Juan Flores, “Boogaloo and Latin Soul,” in Jiménez Román and Flores, The Afro-Latin@ Reader, p. 190.
47 Ed Morales, “The Story of Nuyorican Salsa,” in Remeseira, Hispanic New York, p. 367.
48 Ibid., p. 367.
49 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 105.
50 Augusto Espíritu, “American Empire, Hispanism, and the Nationalist Vision of Albizu, Recto, and Grau,” in Alyosha Goldstein (ed.), Formations of United States Colonialism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2014), pp. 158, 165, Kindle.
51 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 105.
52 Espíritu, “American Empire, Hispanism, and the Nationalist Vision of Albizu, Recto, and Grau,” p. 105.
53 Pedro Albizu Campos, “Puerto Rican Nationalism,” in Robert Santiago (ed.), Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings—An Anthology (New York: One World, 1995), pp. 28–29.
54 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 256.
55 González, Harvest of Empire, p. 85.
56 José Trías Monge, Puerto R
ico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 96–97.
57 José Acosta Velarde to Charles West, Acting Secretary of the Interior, June 12, 1936, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.
58 James L. Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 169.
59 Blanton Winship to Harold Ickes, Secretary of the Interior, June 1, 1936, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.
60 Lorrin Thomas, Puerto Rican Citizen: History and Political Identity in Twentieth-Century New York City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), p. 119.
61 Ibid.
62 “Report on the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico,” May 22, 1937, p. 10.
63 Ibid., p. 12.
64 Ibid., pp. 17, 21.
65 Ibid., pp. 28–29.
66 Ernest Gruening, Director of the Division of Territories & Islands, to Blanton Winship, April 5, 1937, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.
67 John W. Wright, Colonel, 65th Infantry, to Ernest Gruening, Director of the Division of Territories & Islands, March 24, 1937, ibid.
68 “Report on the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico,” p. 15.
69 Ibid., p. 28.
70 Jorge Rodríguez Beruff, “From Winship to Leahy: Crisis, War, and Transition in Puerto Rico,” in McCoy and Scarano, Colonial Crucible, pp. 435–36.
71 Congressional Record 84, 1939, p. 4063. Extracts also available in Annette T. Rubinstein (ed.), “I Vote My Conscience: The Debates, Speeches, and Writings of Congressman Vito Marcantonio, May 11, 1939,” http://www.vitomarcantonio.org/chapter_9.php#76th_8 (accessed October 27, 2016).
72 Ibid.
73 Monge, Puerto Rico, p. 98.
74 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 98.
75 Ibid., p. 137.
76 Luis Muñoz Marín to Franklin D. Roosevelt, November 28, 1940, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 1, Selected Documents Concerning Puerto Rico, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.
77 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 148.
78 Ibid., p. 149. See Nelson A. Denis, War Against All Puerto Ricans: Revolution and Terror in America’s Colony (New York: Nation, 2015); see chapters 11 and 17.
79 William D. Leahy to Dr. Rupert Emerson, Director of the Divisions of Territories & Island Possessions, July 18, 1940, NARA, RG 126, Office of Territories and Classified Files, 1907–1951, Box Number 933, File 9-8-78.
80 Memorandum for the Secretary from the U.S. Department of the Interior, December 24, 1943, ibid.
81 Rexford Tugwell, The Stricken Land: The Story of Puerto Rico (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1947), pp. 42–43, quoted in Monge, Puerto Rico, pp. 97–98.
82 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 157.
83 Rexford Tugwell to Harold Ickes, May 28, 1943, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 2, Rexford Tugwell Papers, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.
84 J. Edgar Hoover to Harry L. Hopkins, July 17, 1943, Materials from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library relating to Puerto Rico, Reel 3, Hopkins Papers, Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College.
85 J. Edgar Hoover to Harry L. Hopkins, September 15, 1943, ibid.
86 Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico, pp. 206–10.
87 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 181.
88 Ibid.; Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico, p. 238.
89 Katherine T. McCaffrey, Military Power and Popular Protest: The U. S. Navy in Vieques, Puerto Rico (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002), p. 30.
90 Ibid., p. 32.
91 Ibid., pp. 35–36.
92 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 159.
93 Ibid., p. 158
94 Ibid., p. 160.
95 Ibid., p. 164.
96 Monge, Puerto Rico, p. 114.
97 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 165.
98 Pedro A. Malavet, America’s Colony: The Political and Cultural Conflict Between the United States and Puerto Rico (New York: New York University Press, 2004), p. 92.
99 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 165.
100 Malavet, America’s Colony, p. 92.
101 Arthur Krock, “In the Nation: The Tragedy in Pennsylvania Avenue,” New York Times, November 2, 1950.
102 Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century, p. 167.
103 Ibid., p. 168.
104 Ibid.
105 Clayton Knowles, “Five Congressmen Shot in House by 3 Puerto Rican Nationalists: Bullets Spray from Gallery,” New York Times, March 2, 1954.
106 Ibid.
107 Irene Vilar, The Ladies’ Gallery: A Memoir of Family Secrets (New York: Vintage, 1998), p. 99.
108 Ibid., p. 88.
109 Ibid., p. 72.
110 Ibid., p. 117.
111 Ibid., p. 96.
112 For more detail on Albizu, the nationalist struggle, and the United States’ operation against it, as well as Albizu Campos’s imprisonment, see Denis, War Against All Puerto Ricans.
113 Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 277.
114 Hunter S. Thompson, The Rum Diary: The Long Lost Novel (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015), pp. 42–43, Kindle.
115 Frederick E. Kidder to Alan Cranston, January 22, 1979, U.S. Senator for California, NARA, RG 204, Office of the Pardon Attorney, Entry #P3: Security-Classified Pardon Case Files: 1951–1991, Container #3.
116 Department of Justice Press Release, September 6, 1979, ibid.
117 Kenneth H. Neagle, Warden of Alderson Federal Correctional Institution, to Norman A. Carlson, Director, Bureau of Prisons, September 10, 1979, ibid.
118 Tony Schwartz, “2 Freed Puerto Rican Nationalists Say They Can’t Rule Out Violence,” New York Times, September 12, 1979.
119 Joseph Egelhof, “2 Puerto Ricans Tell of U.S. Offer to Deal,” Chicago Tribune, September 12, 1979, p. 16.
120 Wayne King, “4 Nationalists Are Welcomed as Heroes in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, September 13, 1979.
121 Ed Pilkington, “‘I’m No Threat’—Will Obama Pardon One of the World’s Longest-Serving Political Prisoners?” Guardian, October 16, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/16/obama-pardon-mandela-puerto-rico-oscar-lopez-rivera- (accessed March 28, 2018).
122 “Filiberto Ojeda Ríos,” Economist, September 29, 2005. https://www.economist.com/node/4455267 (accessed April 3, 2018); Abby Goodnough, “Killing of Militant Raises Ire in Puerto Rico,” New York Times, September 28, 2005. https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/28/us/killing-of-militant-raises-ire-in-puerto-rico.html (accessed April 3, 2018).
Chapter 14: Los Angeles, California
1 Kropp, California Vieja, p. 211.
2 William D. Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” Western Folklore 58, no. 2 (1999): 110.
3 Ibid., pp. 110–13.
4 Quoted in Jean Bruce Poole and Tevvy Ball, El Pueblo: The Historic Heart of Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute and J. Paul Getty Museum, 2002), p. 43.
5 Quoted ibid., p. 48.
6 Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 116.
7 Quoted ibid., p. 117.
8 Kropp, California Vieja, pp. 228–29.
9 Quoted in Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 115.
10 Quoted in Poole and Ball, El Pueblo, pp. 50–51.
11 Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1924, quoted in Gustavo Arellano, Taco USA: How Mexican Food Conquered America (New York: Scribner, 2012), pp. 54–56.
12 Quoted in P
oole and Ball, El Pueblo, p. 75.
13 Quoted ibid., p. 77.
14 Quoted in Sarah Schrank, Art and the City: Civic Imagination and Cultural Authority in Los Angeles (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), p. 49.
15 Leslie Rainer, “The Conservation of América Tropical: Historical Context and Project Overview,” presented at The Siqueiros Legacy: Challenges of Conserving the Artist’s Monumental Murals, Getty Center, Los Angeles. October 16, 2012, http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/historical_context.pdf (accessed April 2, 2018.)
16 Estrada, “Los Angeles’ Old Plaza and Olvera Street,” p. 116.
17 Helen Delpar, The Enormous Vogue of Things Mexican: Cultural Relations Between the United States and Mexico, 1920–1935 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992), p. 55.
18 Ibid., p. 55; James Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico (Singapore: Fundación Televisa/Aperture, 2010), p. 18.
19 Johnston McCulley, The Mark of Zorro: The Curse of Capistran (2009), p. 9, Kindle.
20 Ibid., p. 3.
21 Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico, p. 17.
22 Ibid., pp. 37, 69.
23 Ibid., pp. 42–43.
24 Moreno Figueroa and Tanaka, “Comics, Dolls and the Disavowal of Racism,” pp. 187–90. Contributing significantly to the mestizaje movement was an influential essay, La raza cosmica, by José Vasconcelos in 1925. He went on to be Mexico’s education minister and also promoted the development of public murals. His legacy and that of his idea of Mexicans as a blended “cosmic race” have come under scrutiny in more recent years and been criticized for their inherent racism, for example the exclusion of indigenous people, among others.
25 Katherine Ware, “Photographs of Mexico 1940,” in Krippner, Paul Strand in Mexico, pp. 267–68.
26 Lawrence Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897–1931 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980), pp. 91–94.
27 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 51.
28 Starr, California: A History, p. 204.
29 Ibid., p. 205.
30 Henderson, Beyond Borders, p. 54.
31 Ibid., p. 56.
32 Zaragosa Vargas, “Tejana Radical: Emma Tenayuca and the San Antonio Labor Movement During the Great Depression,” Pacific Historical Review 66, no. 4 (1997): 556.
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