109. Daniel Pink, “The Buck Stops Here,” Wired, Mar. 2005; Tim Adams, “For Your Information,” Guardian, June 30, 2007; Lord Emsworth user page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Lord_Emsworth; Peter Steiner, New Yorker cartoon, July 5, 1993, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Internet,_nobody_knows_you’re_a_dog.
110. Jonathan Zittrain, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It (Yale, 2008), 147.
111. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
112. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
113. John Battelle, The Search (Portfolio, 2005; locations refer to the Kindle edition), 894.
114. Battelle, The Search, 945; author’s visit with Srinija Srinivasan.
115. In addition to the sources cited below, this section is based on my interview and conversations with Larry Page; Larry Page commencement address at the University of Michigan, May 2, 2009; Larry Page and Sergey Brin interviews, Academy of Achievement, Oct. 28, 2000; “The Lost Google Tapes,” interviews by John Ince with Sergey Brin, Larry Page, and others, Jan. 2000, http://www.podtech.net/home/?s=Lost+Google+Tapes; John Ince, “Google Flashback—My 2000 Interviews,” Huffington Post, Feb. 6, 2012; Ken Auletta, Googled (Penguin, 2009); Battelle, The Search; Richard Brandt, The Google Guys (Penguin, 2011); Steven Levy, In the Plex (Simon & Schuster, 2011); Randall Stross, Planet Google (Free Press, 2008); David Vise, The Google Story (Delacorte, 2005); Douglas Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky: The Confessions of Google Employee Number 59 (Mariner, 2012); Brenna McBride, “The Ultimate Search,” College Park magazine, Spring 2000; Mark Malseed, “The Story of Sergey Brin,” Moment magazine, Feb. 2007.
116. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
117. Larry Page interview, Academy of Achievement.
118. Larry Page interview, by Andy Serwer, Fortune, May 1, 2008.
119. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
120. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
121. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
122. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
123. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
124. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
125. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
126. Battelle, The Search, 1031.
127. Auletta, Googled, 28.
128. Interview with Larry Page and Sergey Brin, conducted by Barbara Walters, ABC News, Dec. 8, 2004.
129. Sergey Brin talk, Breakthrough Learning conference, Google headquarters, Nov. 12, 2009.
130. Malseed, “The Story of Sergey Brin.”
131. Sergey Brin interview, Academy of Achievement.
132. McBride, “The Ultimate Search.”
133. Auletta, Googled, 31.
134. Auletta, Googled, 32.
135. Vise, The Google Story, 33.
136. Auletta, Googled, 39.
137. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
138. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
139. Terry Winograd interview, conducted by Bill Moggridge, http://www.designinginteractions.com/interviews/TerryWinograd.
140. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
141. Craig Silverstein, Sergey Brin, Rajeev Motwani, and Jeff Ullman, “Scalable Techniques for Mining Causal Structures,” Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, July 2000.
142. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
143. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
144. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
145. Vise, The Google Story, 10.
146. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
147. Battelle, The Search, 1183.
148. Battelle, The Search, 1114.
149. Larry Page, Michigan commencement address.
150. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
151. Levy, In the Plex, 415, citing Page’s remarks at the 2001 PC Forum, held in Scottsdale, Arizona.
152. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2.
153. Sergey Brin, Rajeev Motwani, Larry Page, Terry Winograd, “What Can You Do with a Web in Your Pocket?” Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering, 1998.
154. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
155. Levy, In the Plex, 358.
156. Levy, In the Plex, 430.
157. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2, http://www.podtech.net/home/1728/podventurezone-lost-google-tapes-part-2-sergey-brin.
158. Levy, In the Plex, 947.
159. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
160. Sergey Brin and Larry Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” seventh International World-Wide Web Conference, Apr. 1998, Brisbane, Australia.
161. Vise, The Google Story, 30.
162. Author’s interview with Larry Page.
163. David Cheriton, Mike Moritz, and Sergey Brin interviews, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes”; Vise, The Google Story, 47; Levy, In the Plex, 547.
164. Vise, The Google Story, 47; Battelle, The Search, 86.
165. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes.”
166. Larry Page interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes.”
167. Auletta, Googled, 44.
168. Sergey Brin interview, conducted by John Ince, “The Lost Google Tapes,” part 2.
CHAPTER TWELVE: ADA FOREVER
1. Dyson, Turing’s Cathedral, 6321; John von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain (Yale, 1958), 80.
2. Gary Marcus, “Hyping Artificial Intelligence, Yet Again,” New Yorker, Jan. 1, 2014, citing “New Navy Device Learns by Doing” (UPI wire story), New York Times, July 8, 1958; “Rival,” New Yorker, Dec. 6, 1958.
3. Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, the original gurus of artificial intelligence, challenged some of Rosenblatt’s premises, after which the excitement surrounding the Perceptron faded and the entire field entered a decline known as the “AI winter.” See Danny Wilson, “Tantalizingly Close to a Mechanized Mind: The Perceptrons Controversy and the Pursuit of Artificial Intelligence,” undergraduate thesis, Harvard, December 2012; Frank Rosenblatt, “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain,” Psychological Review, Fall 1958; Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, Perceptrons (MIT, 1969).
4. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.
5. Garry Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer,” New York Review of Books, Feb. 11, 2010; Clive Thompson, Smarter Than You Think (Penguin, 2013), 3.
6. “Watson on Jeopardy,” IBM’s Smarter Planet website, Feb. 14, 2011, http://asmarterplanet.com/blog/2011/02/watson-on-jeopardy-day-one-man-vs-machine-for-global-bragging-rights.html.
7. John Searle, “Watson Doesn’t Know It Won on Jeopardy,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 23, 2011.
8. John E. Kelly III and Steve Hamm, Smart Machines (Columbia, 2013), 4. Steve Hamm is a technology journalist now working as a writer and communications strategist at IBM. I have attributed the opinions in the book to Kelly, who is the director of IBM research.
9. Larry Hardesty, “Artificial-Intelligence Research Revives Its Old Ambitions,” MIT News, Sept. 9, 2013.
10. James Somers, “The Man Who Would Teach Computers to Think,” Atlantic, Nov. 2013.
11. Gary Marcus, “Why Can’t My Computer Understand Me,” New Yorker, Aug. 16, 2013.
12. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (Harper, 1994), 191.
13. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Prentice Hall, 1995), 566.
14. Author’s interview with Bill Gates.
15. Nicholas Wade, “In Tiny Worm, Unlocking Secrets of the Brain,” New York Times, June 20, 2011; “The Connectome of a Decision-Making Neural Network,” Science, July 27, 2012; The Dana Foundation, https://www.dana.org/News/Details.aspx?id=43512.
16. John Markoff, “Brainlike Computers, Learning from
Experience,” New York Times, Dec. 28, 2013. Markoff, who has long done thoughtful reporting on this field, is writing a book that explores the implications of machines that can replace human labor.
17. “Neuromorphic Computing Platform,” the Human Brain Project, https://www.humanbrainproject.eu/neuromorphic-computing-platform1; Bennie Mols, “Brainy Computer Chip Ditches Digital for Analog,” Communications of the ACM, Feb. 27, 2014; Klint Finley, “Computer Chips That Work Like a Brain Are Coming—Just Not Yet,” Wired, Dec. 31, 2013. Beau Cronin of O’Reilly Media has proposed a drinking game: “take a shot every time you find a news article or blog post that describes a new AI system as working or thinking ‘like the brain’ ” (http://radar.oreilly.com/2014/05/it-works-like-the-brain-so.html), and he maintains a pinboard of stories making such claims (https://pinboard.in/u:beaucronin/t:like-the-brain/#).
18. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
19. Vernor Vinge, “The Coming Technological Singularity,” Whole Earth Review, Winter 1993. See also Ray Kurzweil, “Accelerating Intelligence,” http://www.kurzweilai.net/.
20. J. C. R. Licklider, “Man-Computer Symbiosis,” IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Mar. 1960.
21. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.
22. Kasparov, “The Chess Master and the Computer.”
23. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 2.
24. “Why Cognitive Systems?” IBM Research website, http://www.research.ibm.com/cognitive-computing/why-cognitive-systems.shtml.
25. Author’s interview with David McQueeney.
26. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.
27. Author’s interview with Ginni Rometty.
28. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 3.
29. “Accelerating the Co-Evolution,” Doug Engelbart Institute, http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/co-evolution.html; Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, 2000).
30. Nick Bilton, Hatching Twitter (Portfolio, 2013), 203.
31. Usually misattributed to Thomas Edison, although there is no evidence he ever said it. Often used by Steve Case.
32. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002).
33. Steven Johnson, “The Internet? We Built That,” New York Times, Sept. 21, 2012.
34. Author’s interview with Larry Page. The quote form Steve Jobs comes from an interview I did with him for my previous book.
35. Kelly and Hamm, Smart Machines, 7.
PHOTO CREDITS
Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Lord Byron: © The Print Collector/Corbis
Babbage: Popperfoto/Getty Images
Difference Engine: Allan J. Cronin
Analytical Engine: Science Photo Library/Getty Images
Jacquard loom: David Monniaux
Jacquard portrait: © Corbis
Bush: © Bettmann/Corbis
Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge
Shannon: Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
Stibitz: Denison University, Department of Math and Computer Science
Zuse: Courtesy of Horst Zuse
Atanasoff: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University
Atanasoff-Berry Computer: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University
Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109
Mauchly: Apic/Contributor/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Eckert: © Bettmann/Corbis
ENIAC in 1946: University of Pennsylvania Archives
Aiken and Hopper: By a staff photographer / © 1946 The Christian Science Monitor (www.CSMonitor.com). Reprinted with permission. Also courtesy of the Grace Murray Hopper Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
Jennings and Bilas with ENIAC: U.S. Army photo
Jennings: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Snyder: Copyright © Jean Jennings Bartik Computing Museum—Northwest Missouri State University. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Von Neumann: © Bettmann/Corbis
Goldstine: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Eckert and Cronkite with UNIVAC: U.S. Census Bureau
Bardeen, Shockley, Brattain: Lucent Technologies/Agence France-Presse/Newscom
First transistor: Reprinted with permission of Alcatel-Lucent USA Inc.
Shockley Nobel toast: Courtesy of Bo Lojek and the Computer History Museum
Noyce: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos
Moore: Intel Corporation
Fairchild Semiconductor: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos
Kilby: Fritz Goro/ The LIFE Picture Collection/ Getty Images
Kilby’s microchip: Image courtesy of Texas Instruments
Rock: Louis Fabian Bachrach
Grove, Noyce, Moore: Intel Corporation
Spacewar: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Bushnell: © Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis
Licklider: Karen Tweedy-Holmes
Taylor: Courtesy of Bob Taylor
Larry Roberts: Courtesy of Larry Roberts
Davies: National Physical Laboratory © Crown Copyright / Science Source Images
Baran: Courtesy of RAND Corp.
Kleinrock: Courtesy of Len Kleinrock
Cerf and Kahn: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis
Kesey: © Joe Rosenthal/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis
Brand: © Bill Young/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis
Whole Earth Catalog cover: Whole Earth Catalog
Engelbart: SRI International
First mouse: SRI International
Brand: SRI International
Kay: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Dynabook: Courtesy of Alan Kay
Felsenstein: Cindy Charles
People’s Computer Company cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum
Ed Roberts: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Popular Electronics cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum
Allen and Gates: Bruce Burgess, courtesy of Lakeside School, Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Fredrica Rice
Gates: Wikimedia Commons/Albuquerque, NM police department
Microsoft team: Courtesy of the Microsoft Archives
Jobs and Wozniak: © DB Apple/dpa/Corbis
Jobs screenshot: YouTube
Stallman: Sam Ogden
Torvalds: © Jim Sugar/Corbis
Brand and Brilliant: © Winni Wintermeyer
Von Meister: The Washington Post/Getty Images
Case: Courtesy of Steve Case
Berners-Lee: CERN
Andreessen: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis
Hall and Rheingold: Courtesy of Justin Hall
Bricklin and Williams: Don Bulens
Wales: Terry Foote via Wikimedia Commons
Brin and Page: Associated Press
Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Vitruvian Man: © The Gallery Collection/Corbis
TIMELINE CREDITS (IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER)
Lovelace: Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Hollerith: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons
Bush (first image): © Bettmann/Corbis
Vacuum tube: Ted Kinsman/Science Source
Turing: Wikimedia Commons/Original at the Archives Centre, King’s College, Cambridge
Shannon: Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
Aiken: Harvard University Archives, UAV 362.7295.8p, B 1, F 11, S 109
Atanasoff: Special Collections Department/Iowa State University
Bletchley Park: Draco2008 via Wikimedia Commons
Zuse: Courtesy of Horst Zuse
Mauchly: Apic/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Atanasoff-Berry Computer: Special Collections Department/Iowa State Universi
ty
Colossus: Bletchley Park Trust/SSPL via Getty Images
Harvard Mark I: Harvard University
Von Neumann: © Bettmann/Corbis
ENIAC: U.S. Army photo
Bush (second image): © Corbis
Transistor invention at Bell Labs: Lucent Technologies/Agence France-Presse/Newscom
Hopper: Defense Visual Information Center
UNIVAC: U.S. Census Bureau
Regency radio: © Mark Richards/CHM
Shockley: Emilio Segrè Visual Archives / American Institute of Physics / Science Source
Fairchild Semiconductor: © Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos
Sputnik: NASA
Kilby: Fritz Goro/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
Licklider: MIT Museum
Baran: Courtesy of RAND Corp.
Spacewar: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
First mouse: SRI International
Kesey: © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis
Moore: Intel Corporation
Brand: © Bill Young/San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis
Taylor: Courtesy of Bob Taylor
Larry Roberts: Courtesy of Larry Roberts
Noyce, Moore, Grove: Intel Corporation
Whole Earth Catalog cover: Whole Earth Catalog
Engelbart: SRI International
ARPANET nodes: Courtesy of Raytheon BBN Technologies
4004: Intel Corporation
Tomlinson: Courtesy of Raytheon BBN Technologies
Bushnell: © Ed Kashi/VII/Corbis
Kay: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Community Memory: Courtesy of the Computer History Museum
Cerf and Kahn: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis
Popular Mechanics cover: DigiBarn Computer Museum
Gates and Allen: Bruce Burgess, courtesy of Lakeside School, Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Fredrica Rice
Apple I: Ed Uthman
Apple II: © Mark Richards/CHM
IBM PC: IBM/Science Source
Gates with Windows disc: © Deborah Feingold/Corbis
Stallman: Sam Ogden
Jobs with Macintosh: Diana Walker/Contour By Getty Images
WELL logo: Image courtesy of The WELL at www.well.com. The logo is a registered trademark of the Well Group Incorporated.
Torvalds: © Jim Sugar/Corbis
Berners-Lee: CERN
Andreessen: © Louie Psihoyos/Corbis
The Innovators Page 62