by Griff Hosker
Chausses - mail leggings. (They were separate- imagine lady's stockings rather than tights!)
Chevauchée- a raid by mounted men
Coningestun- Coniston
Conroi- A group of knights fighting together. The smallest unit of the period
Corebricg – Corbridge
Cuneceastra- Chester-Le-Street
Demesne- estate
Destrier- war horse
Doxy- prostitute
Dyflin- Dublin
Dùn Èideann- Edinburgh
Fissebourne- Fishburn County Durham
Fess- a horizontal line in heraldry
Galloglass- Irish mercenaries
Gambeson- a padded tunic worn underneath mail. When worn by an archer they came to the waist. It was more of a quilted jacket but I have used the term freely
Gonfanon- A standard used in medieval times (Also known as a Gonfalon in Italy)
Hartness- the manor which became Hartlepool
Hautwesel- Haltwhistle
Hulle- Rhyl (North Wales)
Liedeberge- Ledbury
Lusitania- Portugal
Mansio- staging houses along Roman Roads
Mare anglicum – English Channel
Maredudd ap Bleddyn- King of Powys
Martinmas- 11th November
Mêlée- a medieval fight between knights
Morthpath- Morpeth (Northumbria)
Moravians- the men of Moray
Mormaer- A Scottish lord and leader
Mummer- an actor from a medieval tableau
Musselmen- Muslims
Nithing- A man without honour (Saxon)
Nomismata- a gold coin equivalent to an aureus
Novo Burgus -Newport (Gwent)
Outremer- the kingdoms of the Holy Land
Owain ap Gruffudd- Son of Gruffudd ap Cynan and King of Gwynedd from 1137
Palfrey- a riding horse
Poitevin- the language of Aquitaine
Prestetone- Prestatyn- North Wales
Pyx- a box containing a holy relic (Shakespeare’s Pax from Henry V)
Refuge- a safe area for squires and captives (tournaments)
Sauve qui peut – Every man for himself (French)
Serengford- Shellingford Oxfordshire
Sergeant-a leader of a company of men at arms
Striguil- Chepstow (Gwent)
Surcoat- a tunic worn over mail or armour
Sumpter- pack horse
Theophany- the feast which is on the 6th of January
Ventail – a piece of mail which covered the neck and the lower face
Veðrafjǫrðr -Waterford (Ireland)
Veisafjǫrðr- Wexford (Ireland)
Witenestaple- Whitstable (Kent)
Wulfestun- Wolviston (Durham)
Maps and Illustrations
Henry’s Empire in 1166.
By Reigen - Own work. Sources: Image: France 1154 Eng.jpg by Lotroo under copyleftfrance_1154_1184.jpg from the Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911., CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikipedia
As you can see Henry ruled more of France than the French king.
The Roman Road system
By Andrei nacu at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Gpedro. Mason (2001), p. 128. Valeria Victrix was based at Deva Victrix., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3575904
These roads would have been the main roads in Norman England. If you look at a road map of modern Britain you will see that the main routes still follow these Roman roads. They knew how to build!
Historical Notes
Those who have read my earlier books have read most of what follows. They should go to: The wars with the French for the new material. (It is seven pages down).
Alfraed is not a real person. He is based upon an amalgam of a number of people, most notably William Marshal. The title of Earl Marshal was a real one. Earl Marshal (alternatively Marschal, Marischal or Marshall) is a hereditary royal officeholder and chivalric title under the sovereign of the United Kingdom used in England. He is the eighth of the Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom, ranking beneath the Lord High Constable and above the Lord High Admiral. The Earl Marshal has among his responsibilities the organisation of major ceremonial state occasions like the monarch's coronation in Westminster Abbey and state funerals. He is also a leading officer of arms and oversees the College of Arms.
The March of Wales in the Middle Ages
Immediately after the Norman Conquest, King William of England installed three of his most trusted confidants, Hugh d'Avranches, Roger de Montgomerie, and William Fitz Osbern, as Earls of Chester, Shrewsbury and Hereford respectively, with responsibilities for containing and subduing the Welsh. The process took a century and was never permanently effective. The term "March of Wales" was first used in the Domesday Book of 1086. Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small marcher lordships between the Dee and Severn, and further west. Military adventurers went to Wales from Normandy and elsewhere and after raiding an area of Wales, then fortified it and granted land to some of their supporters. One example was Bernard de Neufmarché, responsible for conquering and pacifying the Welsh kingdom of Brycheiniog. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size."
Source: Welsh Marches - https://en.wikipedia.org
Rhys ap Gruffydd or ap Gruffudd (often anglicised to "Griffith") (1132 – 28 April 1197) was the ruler of the kingdom of Deheubarth in south Wales from 1155 to 1197. Today, he is commonly known as The Lord Rhys, in Welsh Yr Arglwydd Rhys, although this title may have not been used in his lifetime. He usually used the title "Proprietary Prince of Deheubarth" or "Prince of South Wales", but two documents have been discovered in which he uses the title "Prince of Wales" or "Prince of the Welsh". Rhys was one of the most successful and powerful Welsh princes, and, after the death of Owain Gwynedd of Gwynedd in 1170, the dominant power in Wales."
In 1171 Rhys made peace with King Henry II and was confirmed in possession of his recent conquests as well as being named Justiciar of South Wales. He maintained good relations with King Henry until the latter's death in 1189. Following Henry's death Rhys revolted against Richard I and attacked the Norman lordships surrounding his territory, capturing a number of castles. In his later years Rhys had trouble keeping control of his sons, particularly Maelgwn and Gruffydd, who maintained a feud with each other. Rhys launched his last campaign against the Normans in 1196 and captured a number of castles. The following year he died unexpectedly and was buried in St David's Cathedral.
Source: Rhys ap Gruffydd - https://en.wikipedia.org
Henry and Eleanor had eight children. As they grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henry's heir apparent, "Young Henry", rebelled in protest; he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother, Eleanor. France, Scotland, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry's vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them "new men" appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henry's death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John, but Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy all his sons' desires for land and immediate power. Philip successfully played on Richard's fears that Henry would make John king, and a final rebellion broke out in 1189. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon in Anjou, where he died.
Source: Henry II of England - https://en.wikipedia.org
The Bretons did ask Henry to choose their next Count and, despite all that he had done to him, Henry chose Geoffrey. He did not rule for long. He died two years after he was appointed Count. Brittany was then subsumed into Normandy and Anjou. William also died young, at the age of 27 but as his death influenced Henry’s rule I will leave those de
tails for a later book! No plot spoilers.
Sieges at this time relied on starving to death the occupants. Wooden castles, the early motte and bailey, could be fired but a stone one with a good ditch could defeat most enemies. The ditches they used were copied from the Roman ones. Once an enemy was in a ditch it was almost impossible to retreat. The trebuchet was in its early stages of development and the onagers and other stone throwers had to be used close enough for them to be subject to archers. Rams were useful but they were not particularly robust and could be set on fire. They also needed a smooth surface. That was not common in the twelfth century. Chinon was unusual in that it had a ramp. Wooden towers were used at the siege of Ascalon and they were burned. The resulting inferno caused a breach and the Templars disobeyed the king to attack immediately. Their heads were displayed on Cairo’s walls. Sometimes the onager was called a mangonel. I have used the Roman name here.
Source: File: Roman Onager.jpg - https://en.wikipedia.org
Source: File: Battering ram.jpg - https://en.wikipedia.org
The rams used at the times would have been lower and covered in hides. This replica gives a rough idea of the construction.
Especial thanks are due to Rich Sankovich. He allowed me to use his crossbow. I now understand how hard it is to fire one. The end is very heavy. You have to be kneeling or resting to use one. Its accuracy is also not as good as that of a bow despite the mechanical nature of the beast. Pulling back the cord to fire it is also a challenge. I would defy anyone to send more than a couple of bolts in a four-minute period. I am also indebted to the Essex re-enactors who told me of a competition held between muskets and war bows. Even tap firing the muskets (apparently an unsafe procedure) the war bow sent more arrows further and at a greater rate than the musket. Wellington, it is alleged, wondered about having a battalion of archers!
I have changed the dates but the events happened roughly at the times I indicated.
An artist’s impression of the Roman Bridge and fort at Newcastle upon Tyne.
Wikipedia
Posset- From medieval times to the 19th century, in Britain, it was a hot drink of milk curdled with wine or ale, often spiced, which was popular and used as a cold and flu remedy or as a catch all for being unwell.
William FitzEmpress
Similarly, I have given what I believe is a plausible answer to William FitzEmpress’ early death at the age of 27. History records that he died a year after Becket refused his request to marry Isabel. William died suddenly shortly thereafter, it was said of a broken heart, and was buried in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Rouen. I find poison a more realistic fate and, once again, it suits my plot line. His brother Henry blamed Becket for William's death, and this might well have been the beginning of the great conflict between them. When Becket was murdered 29 December 1170, one of the assailants was Richard le Breton who had been a knight in William's employ. When Breton delivered his fatal blow he shouted, "Take that, for the love of my lord William, the king's brother!"
Duchy of Brittany
Henry had appointed Conan as Duke but he was weak. The Breton leaders did as they liked and so Henry took on the challenge and defeated them. Henry then forced Conan to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his five-year-old daughter, Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement was quite unusual in terms of medieval law, as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. They eventually married in July 1181. For those who have read my Border Knight series, this is the same Constance who is mother of Prince Arthur and Eleanor Fair Maid of Brittany.
Malcolm IV and William (the Lion)
Malcolm was not only King of Scots, but also inherited the Earldom of Northumbria, which his father and grandfather had gained during the wars between Stephen and Empress Matilda. Malcolm granted Northumbria to his brother William, keeping Cumbria for himself. Cumbria was, like the earldoms of Northumbria and Huntingdon, and later Chester, a fief of the English crown. While Malcolm delayed doing homage to Henry II of England for his possessions in Henry's kingdom, he did so in 1157 at Peveril Castle in Derbyshire and later at Chester. Henry II refused to allow Malcolm to keep Cumbria, or William to keep Northumbria, but instead granted the Earldom of Huntingdon to Malcolm, for which Malcolm did homage.
Malcolm IV died on 9 December 1165 at Jedburgh, aged twenty-four. His premature death may have been hastened by Paget's disease (a chronic disorder that typically results in enlarged and deformed bones). While his contemporaries were in no doubt that Malcolm had some of the qualities of a great king, later writers were less convinced. The compiler of the Annals of Ulster, writing soon after 1165, praises Malcolm:
‘Máel Coluim Cenn Mór, son of Henry, high king of Scotland, the best Christian that was of the Gaidhil who dwell by the sea on the east for alms, deeds, hospitality and piety, died.’
Likewise, William of Newburgh praises Malcolm, "the most Christian king of the Scots", highly in his Historia Rerum Anglicarum.
Nonetheless, Malcolm was not well regarded in all quarters. The Gesta Annalia remarks ‘Malcolm quite neglected the care, as well as governance, of his kingdom. Wherefore he was so hated by all the common people that William, the elder of his brothers - who had always been on bad terms with the English, and their lasting foe, forasmuch as they had taken away his patrimony, the earldom of Northumbria, to wit - was by them appointed warden of the whole kingdom, against the king's will.’
In contrast to his deeply religious, frail brother, William was powerfully built, redheaded, and headstrong. He was an effective monarch whose reign was marred by his ill-fated attempts to regain control of Northumbria from the Normans.
He was not known as "The Lion" during his own lifetime, and the title did not relate to his tenacious character or his military prowess. It was attached to him because of his flag or standard, a red lion rampant with a forked tail on a yellow background. This went on to become the Royal Banner of Scotland, still used today but quartered with those of England and of Ireland. It became attached to him because the chronicler John of Fordun called him the "Lion of Justice".
William was grandson of David I of Scotland. He also inherited the title of Earl of Northumbria in 1152 from his father, Henry of Scotland. However, he had to give up this title to King Henry II of England in 1157. This caused trouble after William became king, since he spent a lot of effort trying to regain Northumbria.
Wikipedia.
The wars with the French
The Vexin was the parcel of land controlled by King Henry and close to the French capital. The French wanted it back and it formed the core of many disputes which lasted long after King Henry died. Despite always being defeated the Irish, Welsh and Scots constantly tried to defeat the Anglo-Normans and allied with the French at every opportunity.
Long-running tensions between Henry and Louis VII continued during the 1160s, the French king slowly becoming more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. In 1160 Louis strengthened his alliances in central France with the Count of Champagne and Odo II, the Duke of Burgundy. Three years later the new Count of Flanders, Philip, concerned about Henry's growing power, openly allied himself with the French king. Louis' wife Adèle gave birth to a male heir, Philip Augustus, in 1165, and Louis was more confident of his own position than for many years previously. As a result, relations between Henry and Louis deteriorated again in the mid-1160s.
Meanwhile, Henry had begun to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and started to exert more direct control. In 1164 Henry intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy, and in 1166 invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his daughter Constance; Constance was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement was quite unusual in terms of medieval law, as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Elsewhere in France, Henry attempted to seize the Auvergne,
much to the anger of the French king. Further south Henry continued to apply pressure on Raymond of Toulouse: the King campaigned there personally in 1161, sent the Archbishop of Bordeaux against Raymond in 1164 and encouraged Alfonso II of Aragon in his attacks. In 1165 Raymond divorced Louis's sister and attempted to ally himself with Henry instead.
These growing tensions between Henry and Louis finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by a trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots and Bretons, and the French king attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against the rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high.
As the decade progressed, Henry increasingly wanted to resolve the question of the inheritance. He decided that he would divide up his empire after his death, with Young Henry receiving England and Normandy, Richard being given the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Geoffrey acquiring Brittany. This would require the consent of Louis as king of France, and accordingly Henry and Louis held fresh peace talks in 1169 at Montmirail. The talks were wide-ranging, culminating with Henry's sons giving homage to Louis for their future inheritances in France, and with Richard being betrothed to Louis' daughter Alice.
If the agreements at Montmirail had been followed up, the acts of homage could potentially have confirmed Louis' position as king, while undermining the legitimacy of any rebellious barons within Henry's territories and the potential for an alliance between them and Louis. In practice, however, Louis perceived himself to have gained a temporary advantage, and immediately after the conference he began to encourage tensions between Henry's sons. Meanwhile, Henry's position in the south of France continued to improve, and by 1173 he had agreed to an alliance with Humbert, the Count of Savoy, which betrothed Henry's son John and Humbert's daughter Alicia. Henry's daughter Eleanor was married to Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1170, enlisting an additional ally in the south. In February 1173, Raymond finally gave in and publicly gave homage for Toulouse to Henry and his heirs.