20. Suttie, “How Sleep Makes You Smart.”
21. National Sleep Foundation, “National Sleep Foundation Recommends New Sleep Times,” February 2, 2015, sleepfoundation.org/press-release/national-sleep-foundation-recommends-new-sleep-times.
22. Personal communication with The Stixrud Group, September 8, 2011.
23. One study of children with ADHD found that 50 percent showed signs of sleep-disordered breathing; N. Golin et al., “Sleep Disorders and Daytime Sleepiness in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder,” Sleep 27, no. 2 (March 15, 2004): 261–66.
24. Kyla Wahlstrom, “Later Start Times for Teens Improve Grades, Mood, Safety” Phi Delta Kappan, kappanonline.org.
25. Helene A. Emsellem, Snooze . . . or Lose!: 10 “No-War” Ways to Improve Your Teen’s Sleep Habits (Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 2006).
26. Ned has, on more than one occasion, paid students to go to bed early the week of their big tests. When Bill lectures about sleep, parents frequently tell him that having a reasonable bedtime is linked to allowance.
27. Jennifer L. Temple, “Caffeine Use in Children: What We Know, What We Have Left to Learn, and Why We Should Worry,” Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews 33, no. 6 (June 2009): 793–806, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.01.001.
28. B. E. Statland and T. J. Demas, “Serum Caffeine Half-Lives. Healthy Subjects vs. Patients Having Alcoholic Hepatic Disease,” American Journal of Clinical Pathology 73, no. 3 (March 1980): 390–93, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7361718?dopt=Abstract.
29. Cheri Mah et al., “The Effects of Sleep Extension on the Athletic Performance of Collegiate Basketball Players,” SLEEP 34, no. 7 (July 1, 2011): 943–50, doi:10.5665/SLEEP.1132. In the following 2016 interview, Mah, who has been consulting with the world champion Golden State Warriors, recommends that elite athletes get eight to ten hours of sleep a night. Alec Rosenberg, “How to Sleep Like a Pro,” University of California, News, www.universityofcalifornia/news/how-sleep-pro-athlete.
CHAPTER EIGHT: Taking a Sense of Control to School
1. Ellen Skinner and Teresa Greene, “Perceived Control: Engagement, Coping, and Development,” in 21st Century Education: A Reference Handbook, vol. 1, ed. Thomas L. Good (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 2008).
2. Denise Clark Pope makes this same point in her important book, Doing School. Pope followed five highly motivated students in an affluent suburban high school in Los Angeles for a year. All five students told her that they were “doing school,” as they only committed effort to school-related tasks that would help them get a good grade or build their academic resume. Pope, Doing School: How We Are Creating a Generation of Stressed-Out, Materialistic, and Miseducated Students (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003).
3. Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “Promoting Self-Determined School Engagement: Motivation, Learning, and Well-Being,” in Handbook of Motivation at School, ed. Kathryn R. Wentzel and Allan Wigfield (New York: Routledge, 2009).
4. Dinah Sparks and Matt Malkus, “Public School Teacher Autonomy in the Classroom Across School Years 2003–04, 2007–08, and 2011–12,” U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (December 2015), 4.
5. David Diamond, “Cognitive, Endocrine and Mechanistic Perspectives on Non-Linear Relationships Between Arousal and Brain Function,” Nonlinearity in Biology, Toxicology, and Medicine 3, no. 1 (January 2005): 1–7, doi:10.2201/nonlin.003.01.001.
6. Scientists have concluded that inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility are the three core executive functions, as these are the executive skills that are most evident early in life. We don’t generally think to assess infants’ organizational or planning skills, but even in the first year of life we see improvements in their ability to inhibit their behavior, to hold an idea or image in mind, and to try different approaches to solving a problem if the first way doesn’t work. Adele Diamond and Kathleen Lee, “Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4–12 Years Old,” Science 333, no. 6045 (August 2011): 959–964, doi:10.1126/science.1204529.
7. Tracy and Ross Alloway, New IQ: Use Your Working Memory to Work Stronger, Smarter, Faster (New York: Fourth Estate, 2014).
8. A great resource for parents who want to support a healthy academic environment for their kids is Stanford University’s Challenge Success Web site: www.challengesuccess.org/parents/parenting-guidelines/.
9. F. Thomas Juster et al., “Changing Times of American Youth: 1981–2003,” University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, ns.UMich.edu, University of Michigan News (November 2004), ns.umich.edu/Releases/2004/Nov04/teen_time_report.pdf.
10. Robert M. Pressman et al., “Homework and Family Stress: With Consideration of Parents’ Self Confidence, Educational Level, and Cultural Background,” American Journal of Family Therapy 43, no. 4 (July 2015): 297–313.
11. Mollie Galloway et al., “Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools,” Journal of Experimental Education 81, no. 4 (2013): 490–510.
12. Harris Cooper et al., “Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987–2003,” Review of Educational Research, 76, no. 1 (2006), doi:10.310/00346543071001001. See also Alfie Kohn, The Myth of Homework (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2007).
13. A. V. Alpern, “Student Engagement in High Performing Urban High Schools: A Case Study,” (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 2008).
14. Pasi Sahlberg, Finnish Lessons: What Can the World Learn from Educational Change in Finland? (New York: Teachers College Press, 2011). Ellen Gamerman, “What Makes Finnish Kids So Smart?,” Wall Street Journal (February 29, 2008), www.wsj.com/articles/SB120425355065601997. Amanda Ripley, The Smartest Kids in the World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014).
15. Sahlberg cited the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) for this finding.
16. Sahlberg, Finnish Lessons.
17. See Maryanne Wolf, Proust and the Squid (New York: Harper Perennial, 2008): 94–96.
18. Donna St. George, “Three Out of Four High Schoolers Failed Algebra 1 Final Exams in Md. District,” Washington Post, July 22, 2015.
19. Jessica Lahey, “Students Should Be Tested More, Not Less,” Atlantic, January 21, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/01/students-should-be-tested-more-not-less/283195/.
20. Bill recently coauthored a chapter in an excellent book on the integration of the arts in instruction: William Stixrud and Bruce A. Marlowe, “School Reform with a Brain: The Neuropsychological Foundation for Arts Integration,” in Arts Integration in Education, ed. Gail Humphries Mardirosian and Yvonne Pelletier Lewis (Bristol, UK: Intellect Ltd., 2016).
21. Jennie Rothenberg Gritz, “Mantras Before Math Class,” Atlantic, November 10, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/11/mantras-before-math-class/412618/.
CHAPTER NINE: Wired 24/7: Taming the Beast of Technology
1. Amanda Lenhart, “Teens, Social Media & Technology Overview 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 9, 2015, www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/a-majority-of-american-teens-report-access-to-a-computer-game-console-smartphone-and-a-tablet/.
2. Aric Sigman, “Time for a View on Screen Time,” Archives of Disease in Childhood 97, no. 11 (October 25, 2012), adc.bmj.com/content/97/11/935.
3. Amanda Lenhart, “Teens, Smartphones & Texting,” Pew Research Center, March 19, 2012, www.pewinternet.org/2012/03/19/teens-smartphones-texting/.
4. Kaiser Family Foundation, “Daily Media Use Among Children and Teens Up Dramatically from Five Years Ago,” KFF.org, January 10, 2010, kff.org/disparities-policy/press-release/daily-media-use-among-children-and-teens-up-dramatically-from-five-years-ago/.
5. In a study from University of Maryland’s International Center for Media & the Public Agenda, two hundred students were challenged to fo
rgo media for a day and blog about it. The blogs conveyed their anxiety at feeling cut off; Philip Merrill College of Journalism, “Merrill Study: Students Unable to Disconnect,” University of Maryland, Merrill.umd.edu, merrill.umd.edu/2010/04/merrill-study-college-students-unable-to-disconnect/.
6. Adam Alter, Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked (New York: Penguin Press, 2017).
7. Nick Bilton, “Steve Jobs Was a Low-Tech Parent,” New York Times, September 10, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/09/11/fashion/steve-jobs-apple-was-a-low-tech-parent.html?_r=0.
8. Larry D. Rosen, Rewired (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2010).
9. Tracy Hampton, “Can Video Games Help Train Surgeons?,” Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, bidmc.org, March 2013, www.bidmc.org/YourHealth/Health-Notes/SurgicalInnovations/Advances/VideoGames.aspx.
10. Daphne Bavelier and C. Shawn Green, “Brain Tune-up from Action Video Game Play,” Scientific American, July 2016.
11. When participants in a study at Michigan State University were interrupted for 2.8 seconds while performing a task, they were twice as likely to make errors as when not interrupted. Harvard Business Review Staff, “The Multitasking Paradox,” Harvard Business Review, March 2013, hbr.org/2013/03/the-multitasking-paradox; MSU Today, “Brief Interruptions Spawn Errors,” msutoday.msu.edu, msutoday.msu.edu/news/2013/brief-interruptions-spawn-errors/.
12. Jane McGonigal, “Gaming Can Make a Better World,” TED Talk, February 2010, www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world#t-11825.
13. Michael S. Rosenwald, “Serious Reading Takes a Hit from Online Scanning and Skimming,” Washington Post, April 6, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/local/serious-reading-takes-a-hit-from-online-scanning-and-skimming-researchers-say/2014/04/06/088028d2-b5d2-11e3-b899-20667de76985_story.html?utm_term=.63a22afe15f7.
14. Larry Rosen, Rewired. Ian Jukes et al., Understanding the Digital Generation: Teaching and Learning in the New Digital Landscape (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010).
15. George Beard, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences—A Supplement to Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia) (South Yarra, Australia: Leopold Classic Library, 2016).
16. Lisa Eadicicco, “Americans Check Their Phones 8 Billion Times a Day,” Time, December 15, 2015, time.com/4147614/smartphone-usage-us-2015/.
17. Kelly Wallace, “Half of Teens Think They’re Addicted to Their Smartphones,” CNN, July 29, 2016, www.cnn.com/2016/05/03/health/teens-cell-phone-addiction-parents/.
18. Larry D. Rosen et al., “Media and Technology Use Predicts Ill-Being Among Children,” Computers in Human Behavior 35 (June 2014): 364–75, doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.036. Sigman, “Time for a View on Screen Time.”
19. When asked during a 2014 lecture if technology causes these problems, or if kids with attention and behavioral problems are drawn more to technology, Larry Rosen said that his studies and those of others have controlled for so many variables that tech seems to cause the problems.
20. Jean M. Twenge, “Have Smartphones Destroyed a Generation?” The Atlantic, September 2017.
21. Sigman, “Time for a View on Screen Time.”
22. Teddy Wayne, “The Trauma of Violent News on the Internet,” New York Times, September 10, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/09/11/fashion/the-trauma-of-violent-news-on-the-internet.html.
23. H. B. Shakya and N. A. Christakis, “Association of Facebook Use with Compromised Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology 185, no. 2 (February 1, 2017): 203–211.
24. Jessica Contrera, “13, Right Now,” Washington Post, May 25, 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/sf/style/2016/05/25/13-right-now-this-is-what-its-like-to-grow-up-in-the-age-of-likes-lols-and-longing/.
25. Larry Rosen, iDisorder: Understanding Our Obsession with Technology and Overcoming Its Hold on Us (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2013).
26. MTV Networks, “MTV’s ‘The Millennial Edge: Phase 3,’” Consumer Insights, Viacom, March/April 2011, www.viacom.com/inspiration/ConsumerInsight/VMN%20Consumer%20Insights%20Newsletter%20MARCHAPRIL%202011.pdf.
27. Amanda Lenhart et al., “Teens and Mobile Phones—Chapter Three: Attitudes Toward Cell Phones,” Pew Research Center, April 20, 2010, www.pewinternet.org/2010/04/20/chapter-three-attitudes-towards-cell-phones/.Peter G. Polos et al., “The Impact of Sleep Time-Related Information and Communication Technology (STRICT) on Sleep Patterns and Daytime Functioning in American Adolescents,” Journal of Adolescence 44 (October 2015): 232–44, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26302334.
28. Douglas Gentile, “Pathological Videogame Use Among Youth 8–18: A National Study,” Psychological Science 20, no. 5 (May 2009): 594–602. Gentile et al., “Pathological Videogame Use Among Youth: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study,” Pediatrics 127, no. 2 (February 2011): e319–e329.
29. Ben Carter et al., “Association Between Portable Screen-Based Media Device Access or Use and Sleep Outcomes,” JAMA Pediatrics 170, no. 12 (December 2016): 1202–8.
30. Nicholas Bakalar, “What Keeps Kids Up at Night? Cellphones and Tablets,” New York Times, October 31, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/10/31/well/mind/what-keeps-kids-up-at-night-it-could-be-their-cellphone.html.
31. Sara Konrath et al., “Changes in Dispositional Empathy in American College Students over Time,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15, no. 2 (May 2011): 180–98.
32. John Bingham, “Screen Addict Parents Accused of Hypocrisy by Their Children,” Telegraph, July 22, 2014, www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10981242/Screen-addict-parents-accused-of-hypocrisy-by-their-children.html.
33. Beard, American Nervousness.
34. For kids’ exposure to greenery around schools: Olga Khazan, “Green Space Makes Kids Smarter,” Atlantic, June 16, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/06/green-spaces-make-kids-smarter/395924/. For adults: Ruth Ann Atchley et al., “Creativity in the Wild: Improving Creative Reasoning through Immersion in Natural Settings,” PLoS One 7, no. 12 (December 12, 2012), journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0051474; C. J. Beukeboom et al., “Stress-Reducing Effects of Real and Artificial Nature,” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 18, no. 4 (2012): 329–33; and Byoung-Suk Kweon et al., “Anger and Stress: The Role of Landscape Posters in an Office Setting,” Environment and Behavior 40, no. 3 (2008): 355.
35. Yalda T. Uhls et al., “Five Days at Outdoor Education Camp Without Screens Improves Preteen Skills with Nonverbal Emotion Cues,” Computers in Human Behavior 39 (October 2014): 387–92.
36. Rosen, “Media and Technology Use Predicts Ill-Being Among Children.”
37. Matt Richtel, “A Silicon Valley School That Doesn’t Compute,” New York Times, October 22, 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/10/23/technology/at-waldorf-school-in-silicon-valley-technology-can-wait.html?mcubz=0.
38. A frequently cited study by David Meyer and colleagues is J. S. Rubinstein, D. E. Meyer, & J. E. Evans, (2001). “Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27(4), 763–97.
The work of Meyer and colleagues is also discussed in a number of articles in the popular press. See, for example: “Study: Multitasking Is Counterproductive (Your Boss May Not Like This One)” CNN.com, August 7, 2001; Robin Marantz Heing, “Driving? Maybe You Shouldn’t Be Reading This,” New York Times, July 13, 2004.
39. Christine Rosen, “The Myth of Multitasking,” New Atlantis 20 (Spring 2008): 105–10.
40. Howard Gardner, The App Generation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014).
41. Office for National Statistics, “Measuring National Well-Being: Insights into Children’s Mental Health and Well-Being,” ons.gov.uk, October 20, 2015, www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/measuringnationalwellbeing/2015-10-20.
42. Gentile, “Patholog
ical Videogame Use among Youth 8–18: A National Study.”
43. Aviv M. Weinstein, “New Developments on the Neurobiological and Pharmaco-Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Internet and Videogame Addiction,” Directions in Psychiatry 33, no. 2 (January 2013): 117–34.
44. Allison Hillhouse, “Consumer Insights: New Millennials Keep Calm & Carry On,” Blog.Viacom, October 8, 2013, blog.viacom.com/2013/10/mtvs-the-new-millennials-will-keep-calm-and-carry-on/.
45. Dan Steinberg, “College Kids Giving Up Their Cellphones: The Incredible Tale of the Maryland Women’s Team,” Washington Post, April 2, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/dc-sports-bog/wp/2015/04/02/college-kids-giving-up-their-cellphones-the-incredible-tale-of-the-maryland-womens-team/.
CHAPTER TEN: Exercising the Brain and Body
1. Sarah Ward offers an excellent seminar on improving executive functions in students using an approach she developed with her colleagues at Cognitive Connections in Boston. This approach emphasizes beginning with the end in mind.
2. Alvaro Pascual-Leone et al., “Modulation of Muscle Responses Evoked by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation During the Acquisition of New Fine Motor Skills,” Journal of Neurophysiology 74, no. 3 (September 1995): 1037–45. This research is also discussed in a fascinating Time magazine article on how the brain changes in response to experience: Sharon Begley, “How the Brain Rewires Itself,” Time, January 19, 2005.
3. Gabriele Oettingen and Peter Gollwitzer, “Strategies of Setting and Implementing Goals,” in Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology, ed. James E. Maddux and June Price Tangney (New York: Guilford Press, 2010), 114–35.
4. Pamela Weintraub, “The Voice of Reason,” Psychology Today, May 4, 2015, www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201505/the-voice-reason.
5. Kristin Neff, “Why Self-Compassion Trumps Self-Esteem,” Greater Good, University of California, Berkeley, May 27, 2011, greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/try_selfcompassion.
6. Po Bronson and Ashley Merryman, “Why Can Some Kids Handle Pressure While Others Fall Apart?,” New York Times Magazine, February 16, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/02/10/magazine/why-can-some-kids-handle-pressure-while-others-fall-apart.html.
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