In the Restoration, the puritan influence, which had been so dominant in earlier decades, decreased. While the strong fears of witchcraft had reduced considerably, however, they had not altogether vanished. The most infamous late flare-up was the Salem Witch Trials, which took place across the Atlantic in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1692.
As the Stuart era came to an end, belief in witchcraft began to go into decline. The Enlightenment values of reason and evidence began to take hold and shake off the cobwebs of superstition and irrationality. Charles II and William III were very sceptical in comparison with their ancestor James I, and perhaps this royal scepticism had a trickle-down effect on the population as a whole.
25. NEW YORK USED TO BE NEW AMSTERDAM
Ah, the Big Apple. New York City is one of the greatest cities in the world, and yet it wasn’t always known as New ‘York’. Before the ubiquitous yellow taxis, Statue of Liberty, and Times Square, Manhattan was once a seventeenth-century Dutch colony called New Amsterdam. Even before that, however, it was Native American land. The original inhabitants of this area were the Lenni-Lenape, before the Dutch settled. The Dutch West India Company (as opposed to its much more famous Dutch East India Company) founded New Amsterdam on this island in 1625. The Dutch had amazingly lucrative trading routes across the world. From the crucial location of New Amsterdam, the Dutch were able to get another valuable commodity: fur.
In the 1660s, Anglo-Dutch relations weren’t terrible, but they weren’t particularly good either. After all, the First Anglo-Dutch war had ended during Cromwell’s time. Charles II decided he wanted some of that Dutch trade for England. The governor of New Amsterdam was one Peter Stuyvesant, who was by some accounts an irritable man who was strongly disliked as a result. When the English invaded (Charles had sent four men-of-war over to the New World, commanded by Richard Nicholls), Stuyvesant had little choice but to surrender to the English, which took place on 8 September 1664. New Amsterdam was renamed New York after James, Duke of York (who later became King James II). Even after the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which naturally followed the renewed hostilities between both nations, the English were able to keep New York.
26. PLAGUE DOCTORS WEREN’T ALWAYS DOCTORS
Plague had been a huge problem in Europe since the fourteenth century, when the Black Death swept through the lands, decimating populations in its wake. Black rats were for many years blamed for spreading the disease. Recent research suggests that gerbils from Asia, and not black rats, were responsible for carrying the disease. The Great Plague of 1665 greatly impacted the country. The eerie herb-stuffed beak mask, the cloak and the gloves of the plague doctor made for a striking, if not frightening, image. Many people might assume that the term ‘plague doctors’ meant that these individuals were trained physicians, but this was simply not the case.
Poorly paid and exposed to the deadly contagion, these ‘doctors’ were usually anyone that could be found to do the job as many of the real physicians fled London once the plague outbreak grew worse. Indeed, it was hard to find anyone other than those from the criminal underworld who had nothing to lose and maybe a little to gain. Plague nurses were no better. Most of these were equally untrustworthy and would eventually steal what they could find of value from their dying patients. Their duties were to look after those suffering from the plague, by feeding them, etc. Plague searchers were people entrusted to remove dead bodies from where they were found and take them to plague pits, where the plague victims were buried. Almost a quarter of London’s population perished because of the plague.
27. THE ‘BLOODLESS’ GLORIOUS REVOLUTION DEFINITELY WASN’T BLOODLESS
When people talk about the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the word ‘bloodless’ gets thrown around a lot. While it is indeed true that there was little bloodshed in England, there were some very bloody battles in both Scotland and Ireland that came as a direct result of the revolution. While we cannot go into great detail about these battles, these were important because they secured William and Mary on the throne. The revision of names for historical events has permeated (or plagued!) the academic community since around the 1970s (the English Civil War is now referred to as The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the Wars of the Roses is now The Cousins’ War, etc.) and there are some who argue that the ‘Glorious Revolution’ should be called something else, but for the sake of consistency, we’ll keep the traditional name.
In Ireland, there were several major battles associated with the Glorious Revolution, the most famous being the Battle of the Boyne, which was fought in 1690 near Drogheda, Ireland. The Williamite forces crossed the River Boyne and fought with the Jacobites. Over a thousand died. This battle is often claimed to have been the one that won the war for the Williamites, and that’s both true and false. The battle that definitely ensured things were in William’s favour was the Battle of Aughrim in 1691, which usually gets ignored but is no less important. When Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, learned the news of this defeat, he suffered a stroke and died a few days later.
In Scotland, there was the Battle of Killiecrankie of 1689, which gave the Jacobites a pyrrhic victory. The leader of this Jacobite rebellion was John Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, known affectionately as ‘Bonnie Dundee’, but his death at Killiecrankie severely impacted morale and the Williamite forces ultimately gained control. Next came the Glencoe Massacre of 1692, which remains a controversial and painful event for the Scots. However, some remained loyal to James. Due to several unfortunate circumstances, the MacDonalds of Glencoe were late in giving their oath, and the Master of Stair showed no mercy. As punishment, the same soldiers who had been enjoying MacDonald hospitality for several days followed the orders they were given and slaughtered many of their hosts – including the clan chief. Survivors, mainly women, children and the elderly, soon died of exposure in the freezing wilderness during that harsh winter of 1692. The Massacre of Glencoe severely tarnished William’s reputation in history. Although whether he actually meant for the massacre to happen can never be known, he did not punish but instead gave good positions to those involved. It must be mentioned, however, that a similarly ruthless incident occurred in the Dutch Republic in 1672, when the De Witt brothers were savagely murdered and mutilated by a pro-Orangist mob. As you can see, the Glorious Revolution was decidedly bloody, not bloodless.
28. DIARIST JOHN EVELYN WAS A SALAD FIEND
John Evelyn (1620–1706), the second-most famous diarist of the seventeenth century after Samuel Pepys, was a man of many talents. Although Evelyn and Pepys were good friends and moved in the same circles, they were different. Evelyn was a more cerebral man, who enjoyed practical pursuits, while Pepys was drawn to the sensuous side of life. Evelyn’s Diary remains one of the most informative accounts of major historical events in the Stuart Age, and therefore is of great importance to researchers. The manuscripts are now in the possession of the British Library in London. Evelyn was not just an enthusiastic diarist but a keen gardener as well, and his house at Sayes Court, near Deptford, was known for its beautiful gardens. These gardens, and especially Evelyn’s precious bushes, were quite badly damaged during Peter the Great’s stay (worth reading about in itself).
He was an early kind of environmentalist, although to refer to him as such may be a little over-simplistic. Evelyn’s Fumifugium; Or, the Inconvenience of the Aer and Smoake of London pamphlet, published in 1661, is important because it shows his concern about the levels of pollution in London’s air. In this, he stated that Londoners ‘breathe nothing but an impure and thick Mist accompanied with a fuliginous and filthy vapour’. In another pamphlet of his, entitled Sylva, Or A Discourse of Forest Trees and the Propagation of Timber In His Majesty’s Dominions, he stated that ‘such woods as do yet remain entire, might be carefully preserved, and such as are destroy’d, sedulously repaired’. Evelyn also wrote Terra: A Philosophical Essay of Earth. Although he was a little long-winded in some respects in his pamphlets, he nevertheless gave some good advice.
; One of the lesser-known things about Evelyn is that he was very keen on salads, or sallats, as he spelled them. The typical diet of a man in his station would consist of a lot of meat, so it is interesting to see there were those who didn’t like the meat-heavy diet of the time. Evelyn loved salads so much that he wrote a book entirely devoted to the art of salad making – Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallats. This fascinating book lists the various recipes one could use to make a salad, but also how to cultivate the many herbs and vegetables used in them. There are recipes for artichokes, beetroot (beets), cabbage, endives, lettuce, fennel, carrots, and cucumbers. For the latter, Evelyn recommends slicing them thinly and adding oil and lemon juice or vinegar. Garlic-lovers may be disappointed; Evelyn was not partial to it, going so far as to say that despite its reputation for being healthful, it has an ‘intolerable rankness’.
Being an early salad-lover must have been good for his health; Evelyn lived to a ripe old age (nearly eighty-six!) and seems to have been largely illness-free. Although he claimed to have been a ‘very moderate eater of them’, I think we can safely say Evelyn was a salad fiend.
29. RUPERT OF THE RHINE WAS A STUART-ERA RENAISSANCE MAN
Prince Rupert of the Rhine was one of the many children of Elizabeth Stuart and Frederick V of the Palatinate. Born in Prague in December of 1619 during his parents’ brief stint as the King and Queen of Bohemia, Rupert’s life was adventure-filled from the very beginning. His parents had made a gamble, and in return had lost everything and were forced into exile. Rupert would eventually become a major military leader, a prisoner of war, a buccaneer, an inventor, an artist and a scientist.
Rupert was one of the greatest Cavalier/Royalist military leaders during the English Civil War. As Captain-General of the Royalist army, he cut a rather impressive figure both on and off the battlefield. Not only was he a skilled military leader, but also a scientist and an artist. Another charming aspect of his personality included his inclusion of his dog wherever he went. Boye was a white poodle that Rupert trained to urinate on command every time he heard the word ‘Pym’ (Pym was a major Parliamentarian figure).
When he failed to defend Bristol from the Parliamentarians, Rupert faced his uncle’s extreme displeasure and was exiled. Rupert’s younger brother Maurice is believed to have died in a shipwreck during a hurricane in the West Indies in 1652. This was a huge blow to the normally assertive man, and for years he continued to hope in vain that his brother was alive. Rupert’s travels took him to the Caribbean, where he nearly died from the bloody flux.
Off the battlefield, Rupert was accomplished in a wide variety of things. A mezzotint of his, The Great Executioner, from around 1658, is generally recognised to be a skilled example of this kind of art. (He also had a considerably large and artistic signature.) Rupert was a savant, and his innate curiosity led to his becoming one of the founders and most active members of The Royal Society. He had a natural excitement when it came to scientific experimentation, a fact which led to several discoveries and inventions, including his improvement of gunpowder, mine detonations and naval experiments. Towards the end of his rather long life, Rupert lived in Windsor Castle, where he worked on a variety of scientific experiments in a laboratory.
He was by his mother’s side when she died in London in 1662. With his dimpled chin and striking good looks, Rupert didn’t have trouble attracting the ladies. Although rumoured to have been married to the court beauty Frances Bard, who bore him a son, he appears to have remained a bachelor. Towards his later years, Rupert did have a relationship with the actress Margaret ‘Peg’ Hughes. He lavished jewels and gifts upon her. After a life of adventure, Prince Rupert died aged sixty-three in 1682 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In his will, Rupert left his money and possessions to his ‘naturelle’ son Dudley Bard (with Frances), Margaret and their daughter, Ruperta. Rupert of the Rhine lived his life to the full, and even after 300 years, he still manages to send hearts a-flutter.
30. THE FRENCH SET THE FASHION FOR NEARLY EVERYTHING
No surprises there, as the French have always been known for their style. Louis XIV of France and one of his mistresses made several big contributions to high-end Stuart fashion. First of all, King Louis loved Baroque ballet and in his youth he enjoyed dancing, but as he aged, he lost some of his youthful good looks. As his hair began to recede, he began to wear a wig. This periwig became the must-have accessory for the fashion-conscious, upper-class male. As the seventeenth-century came to a close, the periwigs had become more voluminous and ostentatious. But Louis’ mark on the fashion world didn’t end there. He was a little on the short side, so he began to wear high heeled shoes (modern fashionistas who praise Louboutin’s red heels will do well to know that red heels were fashionable in Louis XIV’s court first). Unfortunately, his courtiers copied him, making there little point in his having adopted the shoes in the first place. Even Louis’ considerably taller cousin, Charles II, wore heels because they were so fashionable.
During the Restoration, French style was very popular in the Merry Monarch’s court. Not everyone was impressed by the English court’s adoption of French clothing, and courtier and writer John Evelyn was one of them. In order to hit back he wrote Tyrannus, or The Mode in a discourse of sumptuary laws in 1661. In this, Evelyn wrote that if a country allows the clothing and language of another, this is simply the beginning of a conquest. France and England had been historical enemies for hundreds of years, and so the average person was not comfortable with French fashions being so well-received among their leaders. As much as he liked France, Evelyn thought England should create its own fashions.
Next came the face patch. In a time of badly disfiguring diseases such as smallpox and syphilis, these little beauties were very much appreciated. Smallpox would leave pockmarks or pits on the skin, and face patches were used to cover these blemishes. Patches were made out of black fabric, from either taffeta, velvet, silk or paper, and applied to the face with gum. Patch boxes were a popular addition to a lady’s dressing table. Mary II had a face-patch box, which was beautifully decorated in red and gold, surrounded by images of flowers and plants, and the lid featured her monogram and a crown. Even women who were blessed with rare undamaged skin wore them because they were so fashionable.
In the late Stuart era, a towering headdress became really trendy. The Coiffure a la Fontanges was named after the Duchesse de Fontanges, a young woman who was briefly a mistress of Louis XIV’s. Hair was curled at the top of the head, the rest hidden away under a cap, a vertical structure of lace (usually white) would rise above the head, and two long pieces of lace would dangle past the neck. During the reigns of William and Mary and then Queen Anne, this headwear was congruent with the straighter, vertical fashions and was ubiquitous among noblewomen.
31. A PHYSICIAN’S ‘CURES’ WERE OFTEN WORSE THAN THE DISEASE
In the early Stuart era, medicine was very much a matter of the four humours – fire, air, water, and earth. That is to say, physicians believed all diseases came from an imbalance of the four elements, those being yellow bile, blood, phlegm and black bile. Humourism was popularised by the work of the ancient Greek physician and philosopher Galen. If a physician thought a person needed to vomit, they would sometimes give them a glass of urine mixed with salt. The thought alone is enough to make one queasy.
Fevers were a common problem, and somehow or other physicians got it into their heads that dead pigeons applied to a ill person’s feet would draw the fever or ‘vapours’ down from their head and out through their feet. Pepys mentions a time when he was summoned to an ill man’s bed and witnessed this, ‘So I to him, and his breath rattled in the throat; and they did lay pigeons to his feet, and all despair of him.’
You’d be mistaken if you thought that the rich and powerful were exempt. If anything, they had it worse – they had the money to hire physicians. Medicine has come a long way since the Early Modern era. When Charles II suffered a stroke, described as a ‘fit of apoplexy’, in the winter of 1
685, he was subjected to a horrendous set of cures from his physicians. His physicians bled him first (sixteen ounces first, then another eight!), shaved his head, blistered his flesh with hot irons and administered enemas. Nearly sixty different medicines were given to the ailing king. Ultimately, Charles II’s last few days of life proved utterly torturous, and he died on 6 February 1685.
A similar sort of thing happened with Charles’s cousin, Louis XIV. Stuart-era surgical operations were performed by barber-surgeons (at the time surgery was spelled chirurgery, surgeons were chirurgeons). Louis had a bad tooth removed. Now, those of us who’ve had teeth removed know that post-operative care is very important in order to reduce the risk of the infection or dry socket. Unfortunately, the socket that was left in Louis’s mouth became infected and it was so painful that the dentists/physicians decided that they had to pull his top teeth out. All this was done without anaesthesia, so you can imagine the pain! This wasn’t the only excruciating medical procedure Louis had to endure.
In 1686, the Sun King developed an anal fistula, which is an uncomfortable and oftentimes very painful medical condition in which a hole forms another passage in the skin around the anus. Waste can enter this wound and become infected, which is why (along with the sheer pain) that Louis’s physicians decided something had to be done. A barber-surgeon named Felix was summoned but he tested the procedure out on French peasants first! Louis went through the ordeal, again without any anaesthetic, and survived.
32. ST PAUL’S CATHEDRAL DOMINATED LONDON’S SKYLINE FOR OVER 200 YEARS
The English Baroque masterpiece that is St Paul’s Cathedral in London is one of the most iconic buildings in the world. It’s been the venue for royal weddings (Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer), state funerals (Winston Churchill) and the resting place for some of the nation’s great military heroes (such as Admiral Nelson). Before the current building’s creation in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, however, the medieval St Paul’s Cathedral was just as awe-inspiring. It was inside this St Paul’s that the wedding of Arthur, Prince of Wales and Catherine of Aragon took place. St Paul’s was also where John Donne gave his sermons during his time as the Dean of St Paul’s.
The Stuarts in 100 Facts Page 5