by Graham Robb
246 Molmutius, King of the Britons: Higden, I, 45.
246 ‘leave no loophole for quibbles’: Geoffrey of Monmouth, III, 5.
248 almost featureless landscapes: Pryor, 372.
248 Iron Age tribal territories: on the association of dragons and other monsters with boundaries and borderlands: Semple, 114.
15. The End of Middle Earth
249 ‘I had horses, men, arms and wealth’: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 37.
249 ‘Caratacus toured the city’: Cassius Dio, LXI, 33.
250 ‘a citadel of perpetual tyranny’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 31.
250 The invasion of ad 43: e.g. Frere and Fulford (2001); Salway, ch. 4; G. Webster (1981 and 1993).
251 ‘a particularly ferocious’ people: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 33.
251 ‘luring’ other tribes: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 39.
251 ‘those who dreaded’: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 33.
252 ‘the haven of fugitives’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 29.
252 Mona is the oblique focus: on the Boudican revolt as diversion: Lucas, 106; G. Webster in Aldhouse-Green (1996), 633.
252 ‘powerful population’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 29.
253 ‘arduous and dangerous’: Tacitus, Agricola, 18.
253 ‘Indignant at the thought’: Cassius Dio, LX, 19.
253 ‘paralysed by fear’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 30.
254 ‘a crucial error’: La Bédoyère, 34.
254 an Iron Age settlement: Cunliffe (2005), 299.
254 ‘lapis fatalis’: Giraldus Cambrensis (1868 and 1978), II, 9. Somewhere in the vicinity, there was once an oak-grove called Cell y Dewiniaid (‘The Diviners’ Cell’) (Pennant, 176).
254 ‘in the lands of the Ordovices’: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 33.
255 ‘find a fatherless boy’: Geoffrey of Monmouth, VI, 19; Nennius, 40.
256 Caratacus ‘piled up stones’: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 33.
257 ‘utterly extinguished’: Tacitus, Annals, XII, 39.
257 ‘amidst a hostile population’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 33.
257 Poenius Postumus: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 37.
257 a date of AD 60–61: Cunliffe (1993), 217–18; G. Webster (1993), 108.
258 ‘Secret conspiracies’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 31.
258 strange occurrences: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 32.
258 Boudica, queen of the Iceni: on Boudica: Aldhouse-Green (2006); Hingley and Unwin; G. Webster (1999).
258 Boudica’s rabble-rousing speech: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 35.
258 ‘possessed of greater intelligence’: Cassius Dio, LXII, 2.
259 in a ‘harsh voice’: Cassius Dio, LXII, 2.
259 Wardy Hill: Hill and Horne.
259 ceremonial centre of Camulodunum: Dunnett and Reece.
260 Woolwich Power Station: Philp, 1 and 38–42.
260 ‘Constructed about 250 BC’: Kent Archaeological Rescue Unit press release: http://cka.moon-demon.co.uk/woolwich.htm.
262 London-to-Hastings road: Leigh, 151–53 and 195–97.
263 They faced the Britons: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 34.
263 ‘empty threats’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 36.
263 Tripontium on Watling Street: Lucas, 108–10.
263 ‘terrain analysis techniques’: Kaye.
263 ‘our soldiers’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 37.
263 the Romans ‘laid waste’: Tacitus, Annals, XIV, 38.
263 Boudica survived the battle: Cassius Dio, LXII, 12.
264 enclosure of the Iceni at Thetford: Sealey, 42; also Gregory, I, 196–99 (from a suggestion of G. Webster).
264 ‘sued for peace’: Tacitus, Agricola, 18.
264 ‘new peoples’: Tacitus, Agricola, 22.
264 ‘Caledonian natives’: Tacitus, Agricola, 25.
264 ‘a remedy for his grief’: Tacitus, Agricola, 29.
264 ‘Still buoyant’: Tacitus, Agricola, 29.
265 thirty contenders: Roman Scotland.
266 White Caterthun and Brown Caterthun: D. Harding, 91–92.
267 ‘terminus Britanniae’: Tacitus, Agricola, 23, 27, 30 and 33.
267 ‘There are no nations beyond us’: Tacitus, Agricola, 30.
267 ‘The flat country between’: Tacitus, Agricola, 35.
267 ‘equipment, bodies’: Tacitus, Agricola, 37.
267 ‘An enormous silence’: Tacitus, Agricola, 38.
268 olive oil that was used as lamp fuel: Potter and Johns, 154.
269 a hardy race of Caledonians: Cassius Dio, LXXVII, 12; also Herodian, III, 14, 6.
269 ‘a grand and memorable exploit’: Tacitus, Agricola, 28.
269 ‘red hair and long limbs’: Tacitus, Agricola, 11.
272 ‘complete savages’: Strabo, II, 5, 8.
272 ‘the livestock eat their fill’: Mela, III, 43.
272 ‘a very tall lighthouse’: Orosius, I, 2.
273 the deposed Irish chieftain: Tacitus, Agricola, 24.
273 ‘On a clear winter’s evening’: Lebor Gabála Érenn, I, 25.
273 ‘They landed on the “Fetid Shore” ’: Lebor Gabála Érenn, V, 66.
273 Iberian-style defences: Raftery, 62.
273 a Barbary macaque: Raftery, 79.
274 the ‘royal sites’: Condit and Coyne; Newman; Raftery, 65.
274 Hill of Uisneach: see Schot.
274 The mighty burgh of Temra: Óengus the Culdee, 165, 177, 189, 193 and 205.
277 ‘annual scene of disgusting superstition’: Hardy, 33.
277 ‘displays all the features’: C. Newman: http://heritagecouncil.ie/unpublished_excavations/section10.html.
277 The earliest partition of Ireland: Lebor Gabála Érenn, II, 37.
278 the other ‘Sacred Promontory’: Freeman, 77–79.
278 Tartessian: Koch (2009); Cunliffe and Koch.
279 the ‘victorious Brigit’: Cogitosus (1987 and 1989); also Aldhouse-Green (1997), 134–36.
279 a circular hedge: Giraldus Cambrensis (1894), 34–36.
279 the Son of God: ‘Mo druí . . . Mac Dé’ (‘My druid . . . the Son of God’): Ross, 429.
279 Lucatmael: Byrne and Francis, 49.
279 ‘professores’ teaching in Bordeaux: Ausonius, V, 4 and 10; Booth. Late sightings of Druids: Desforges, 302.
280 Pope Gregory I in c. 600: letter to Abbot Mellitus, in Bede, I, 30.
280 stones of the Picts: e.g. Murray; examples of ‘neo-Celtic’ art in souvenirs produced for Roman soldiers: Breeze.
280 two ‘compass lines’: In a random sample of fourteen, the average bearing of the right-hand rods of the Pictish ‘compass’ figures roughly corresponds to the summer solstice azimuth in AD 800 at the likely ‘origin centre’ of the carvings (Moray and Dornoch Firths).
281 the first Christian chapels: Deanesly; C. Thomas.
281 ‘Meanwhile, stiff with cold and frost’: Gildas, 8.
281 St Regina: Boutry and Julia.
283 The early Christian sites: e.g. Blair; Brown; E. Evans; Redknap; Rees; C. Thomas; also from Bede; Geoffrey of Monmouth; Giraldus Cambrensis (1978); Nennius.
283 Hoards containing Christian artefacts: following C. Thomas, 103.
284 the native of a nemeton: Byrne and Francis, 22–23. On St Patrick as ‘a super-Druid’: Humphrey.
284 Pope Gregory had instructed: Bede, I, 30.
285 magpies used to gather: Leland, II, 44.
285 ‘fairy-paths’, ‘trods’ or ‘corpse roads’: Pennick, 131.
286 Old Sarum: Hall, 4; the deer may be a later addition.
286 Myrfield: G. White, 2.
286 Mediocantus: Gregory of Tours, 1053.
286 struggles of slain animals: Diodorus Siculus, V, 31, 3.
286 ‘Honour the gods’: Diogenes Laertius, I, 6.
286 ‘Death is but the middle’: Lucan, I, 457–58 (on the Druids: ‘longae . . . vitae / mors media est’).
286 ‘Souls do not perish’: BG, VI, 14.
287 guided by the blur of the Milky Way: Puel.
&nbs
p; 287 Christians removed his beard: Lancel, 307.
Epilogue: A Traveller’s Guide to Middle Earth
289 Standish was a Roman road junction: Waddelove.
291 ‘locus valde terribilis’: from Genesis 28:17.
291 King Lucius of Britain: Flete, 63.
292 in magnified illustrations: e.g. Kruta (2004).
292 ‘at Fenny Stratford’: The discoverer of the coin gave no other details: Sir John Evans, 50.
293 ‘Conventional wisdom prevailed’: R. Hill, 85.
294 the area now covered by Caldecotte Lake: Zeepvat et al., and Milton Keynes Historic Environment Record.
Works Cited
Unless otherwise stated, the place of publication is either London or Paris.
Abbreviation:
CAG: Carte archéologique de la Gaule (Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1988–2013).
Abert, Franck. Les Hauts-de-Seine. CAG, 92. 2005.
Adams, James N. The Regional Diversification of Latin, 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Aeberhardt, André. ‘L’Angoumois gallo-romain’. Thesis. Tours: Centre de recherches A. Piganiol, 1983.
Aelian. Historical Miscellany. Tr. N. G. Wilson. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Agache, Roger. ‘Vues aériennes et folklore de crop-marks circulaires au nord d’Amiens’. Bulletin de la Société préhistorique de France, LVIII, 3–4 (1961), pp. 224–36.
Agache, R. ‘Repérage des sanctuaires gaulois et gallo-romains dans les campagnes du bassin de la Somme et ses abords’. Comptes-rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, CXLI, 2 (1997), pp. 551–66.
Aldhouse-Green, Miranda. The Sun-Gods of Ancient Europe. Batsford, 1991.
Aldhouse-Green, M. Exploring the World of the Druids. Thames & Hudson, 1997.
Aldhouse-Green, M. Boudica Britannia: Rebel, War-leader and Queen. Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2006.
Aldhouse-Green, M., ed. The Celtic World. Routledge, 1995; 1996.
Allen, Martin. ‘The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project’: http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/faq/general-questions/what-was-it-for
Almagro Gorbea, Martín and J. M. Gran Aymerich. ‘Le Bassin monumental du Mont Beuvray (Bibracte)’. Monuments et mémoires de la Fondation Eugène Piot, LXXI (1990), pp. 21–41.
Amé, Émile. Dictionnaire topographique du département du Cantal. Imprimerie Nationale, 1897.
Ammianus Marcellinus. Römische Geschichte. 4 vols. Ed. W. Seyfarth. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1968–71.
Anon. ‘Incerti Gratiarum Actio Constantino Augusto’. In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini. Ed. R. A. B. Mynors. Tr. C. E. V. Nixon and B. S. Rodgers. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Pp. 264–87 and 585–93.
Appianus of Alexandria. Roman History. 4 vols. Ed. H. White. Heinemann, 1912–13.
Arcelin, Patrice, et al., eds. Sur les pas des Grecs en Occident. Lattes: A.D.A.M., 1994.
Aristotle. Meteorologica. Tr. H. D. P. Lee. Heinemann, 1952.
Aristotle. Minor Works. Tr. W. S. Hett. 1936; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Aristotle. Aristotle’s Meteorology in the Arabico-Latin Tradition. Ed. P. L. Schoonheim. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
Aristotle. The Eudemian Ethics. Ed. A. Kenny. Oxford University Press, 2011.
Arnaud-Fassetta, Gilles. ‘Geomorphological Records of a “Flood-Dominated Regime” in the Rhone Delta’. Geodinamica Acta, XV (2002), pp. 79–92.
Arrian of Nicomedia. [On Tactics]. In Extraits des auteurs grecs concernant la géographie et l’histoire des Gaules. 6 vols. Ed. E. Cougny. Renouard, 1878–92. III, 363–67.
Athenaeus of Naucratis. The Deipnosophists or Banquet of the Learned. 3 vols. Tr. C. D. Yonge. Bohn, 1854.
Ausonius, Decimus Magnus. The Works of Ausonius. R. P. H. Green. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
Aveni, Anthony, ed. World Archaeoastronomy: Selected Papers. Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Aveni, A. and Giuliano Romano. ‘Orientation and Etruscan Ritual’. Antiquity, LXVIII, 260 (1994), pp. 545–63.
Avienus, Rufus Festus. Description de la terre. Ed. E. Despois and E. Saviot. Panckoucke, 1843.
Avienus, R. F. Rufi Festi Avieni Carmina. Ed. A. Holder. Innsbruck: Wagner, 1887.
Avienus, R. F. Ora maritima. Ed. A. Berthelot. Champion, 1934.
Avienus, R. F. Ora maritima: A Description of the Seacoast from Brittany to Marseilles. Ed. J. P. Murphy. Chicago: Ares, 1977.
Bailey, G. B. and D. F. Devereux. ‘The Eastern Terminus of the Antonine Wall: A Review’. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, CXVII (1987), pp. 93–104.
Balletti, Caterina. ‘Georeference in the Analysis of the Geometric Content of Early Maps’. e-Perimetron, I, 1 (2006): http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_1_1/Balletti/Balletti.pdf
Barral, Philippe, et al., eds. Alésia: fouilles et recherches franco-allemandes. 3 vols. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 2001.
Barruol, Guy. Les Peuples préromains du sud-est de la Gaule. Boccard, 1969.
Bayard, Didier and Jean-Luc Massy. ‘Le Développement d’Amiens romain, du Ier siècle av. J. C. au IVe siècle ap. J. C’. Revue archéologique de Picardie, III, 3–4 (1984), pp. 89–112.
Bayerri y Bertomeu, Enrique, et al. La Geografía histórico-toponímica de la España ibero-romana. Tortosa: Dertosa, 1983.
Beaurepaire, Charles de. Dictionnaire topographique du département de Seine-Maritime. 2 vols. Bibliothèque Nationale, 1982–84.
Beaurepaire, François de. Les Noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de l’Eure. Picard, 1981.
Beaurepaire, F. de. Les Noms des communes et anciennes paroisses de la Manche. Picard, 1986.
Beazley, Charles Raymond. The Dawn of Modern Geography. 3 vols. John Murray, 1897–1906.
Beckley, Ruth and David Radley. ‘Oxford Archaeological Plan. Resource Assessment 2011: The Iron Age. Draft’. Oxford City Council, 2011.
Bede, the Venerable. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of England. Tr. A. M. Sellar. Bell, 1907.
Beer, Arthur, et al. ‘An Eighth-Century Meridian Line: I-Hsing’s Chain of Gnomons and the Pre-history of the Metric System’. Vistas in Astronomy, IV, 4 (1961), pp. 3–28.
Ben Redjeb, Tahar. La Somme. CAG, 80/2. 2012.
Benoît, Fernand. ‘La Légende d’Héraclès et la colonisation grecque dans le delta du Rhône’. Lettres d’humanité, VIII (1949), pp. 104–48.
Benoît, F. Recherches sur l’hellénisation du Midi de la Gaule. Aix-en-Provence: Ophrys, 1965.
Bernouis, Philippe. L’Orne. CAG, 61. 1999.
Bibliotheca Augustana. ‘Tabula Peutingeriana’: http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost03/Tabula/tab_intr.html
Billy, Pierre-Henri. ‘Toponymie française et dialectologie gauloise’. In Gaulois et celtique continental. Ed. P.-Y. Lambert and G.-J. Pinault. Geneva: Droz, 2007.
Birkhan, Helmut. Kelten: Versuch einer Gesamtdarstellung ihrer Kultur. New ed. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1997.
Birkholz, Daniel. The King’s Two Maps: Cartography and Culture in Thirteenth-Century England. Routledge, 1967.
Bittel, Kurt, et al. Die keltischen Viereckschanzen. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Theiss, 1990.
Blair, John. The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society. Oxford University Press, 2005.
Bonnet, Oscar. ‘Sur le camp romain de Mont-Milau [sic], près Langogne’. Annales de la Société d’agriculture, sciences, arts et commerce du Puy, XX (August 1855), pp. 524–29.
Booth, A. D. ‘Notes on Ausonius’ Professores’. Phoenix, XXXII, 3 (1978), pp. 235–49.
Boroditsky, Lera. ‘How Language Shapes Thought’. Scientific American, February 2011, pp. 43–45.
Bougard, R. Le Petit flambeau de la mer, ou le Véritable guide des pilotes côtiers. Le Havre: Faure, 1763.
Bouteiller, Ernest de. Dictionnaire topographique de l’ancien départ
ement de la Moselle. Imprimerie Nationale, 1874.
Boutiot, Théophile. Dictionnaire topographique du département de l’Aube. Imprimerie Nationale, 1874.
Boutoura, Chryssoula. ‘Assigning Map Projections to Portolan Maps’. e-Perimetron, I, 1 (2006): http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_1_1/Boutoura/1_1_Boutoura.pdf
Boutry, Philippe and Dominique Julia, eds. Reine au Mont Auxois: le culte et le pèlerinage de sainte Reine des origines à nos jours. Ville de Dijon, 1997.
Bouvet, Jean-Philippe, et al. La Sarthe. CAG, 72. 2002.
Boyer, Hippolyte and Robert Latouche. Dictionnaire topographique du département du Cher. Imprimerie Nationale, 1926.
Boyer, Roland. Les Noms de lieux de la région du Mont-Blanc. Montrouge: Boyer, 1979.
Braund, D. C. ‘The Aedui, Troy, and the Apocolocyntosis’. The Classical Quarterly, new series, XXX, 2 (1980), pp. 420–25.
Breeze, David John, ed. The First Souvenirs: Enamelled Vessels from Hadrian’s Wall. Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, 2012.
Brewer, Richard J., ed. Birthday of the Eagle: The Second Augustan Legion and the Roman Military Machine. Cardiff: National Museums & Galleries of Wales, 2002.
Bromwich, James. The Roman Remains of Southern France. Routledge, 1993; 1996.
Brown, P. D. C. ‘The Church at Richborough’. Britannia, II (1971), pp. 225–31.
Brun, Patrice and Claude Mordant, eds. Le Groupe Rhin-Suisse-France orientale et la notion de civilisation des Champs d’Urnes. Nemours: Musée de préhistoire d’Île-de-France, 1988.
Brun, P., et al. ‘Le Processus d’urbanisation dans la vallée de l’Aisne’. In Les Processus d’urbanisation à l’ge du fer. Glux-en-Glenne: Centre archéologique européen du Mont Beuvray, 2000.
Brunaux, Jean-Louis. Gournay. 3 vols. Errance, 1985–94.
Brunaux, J.-L. Sanctuaires et rites. Errance, 1986.
Brunaux, J.-L. Les Religions gauloises. New ed. Errance, 2000.
Brunaux, J.-L., ed. Les Sanctuaires celtiques et leurs rapports avec le monde méditerranéen. Errance, 1991.
Brun-Durand, Justin. Dictionnaire topographique du département de la Drôme. Imprimerie Nationale, 1891.
Buchsenschutz, Olivier, ed. Décors, images et signes de l’ge du Fer européen. Tours: FERACF, 2002.