by H M Hozier
Acting with this idea, on the afternoon of the 23rd, the Archduke removed one brigade of his reserve division to Sandra, whence it pushed detachments towards Castelnovo. The fifth corps, under General Rodich, was at the same time to move to Sona, and send its advanced guard to Zerbare in the direction of Custozza and Valeggio. The ninth corps, which had to make a march of fifteen miles from San Bonifacio, could only reach Verona on the evening of the 23rd, and was therefore ordered to be held as the reserve. The cavalry attached to the different corps d’armée was formed into an independent cavalry brigade, so that the archduke now had two brigades of that arm.
On the night between the 23rd and 24th, the Austrian headquarters were moved to San Massimo, and orders were issued that on the 24th, at early morning, the line between Sandra, Santa Giustina, Sona, and Somma Campagna should be occupied, and that then a wheel to the left should be made on Somma Campagna, as a pivot, which would bring the troops on a line from Castelnovo by San Giorgio and Zerbare to Somma Campagna. This movement was to be covered by the two cavalry brigades, which were to advance by Ganfardine and Dossobuono towards Custozza and Villafranca.
The dispositions on both sides thus rendered a collision between the two armies imminent, and brought on the
BATTLE OF CUSTOZZA
In the night between the 23rd and 24th, a heavy fall of rain took place, which laid the dust, and made the air cool on the following day.
At three o’clock in the morning of the 24th, the sixth Austrian corps moved on Somma Campagna, the fifth corps, leaving a detachment in Sona, moved on San Giorgio; the reserve division from Sandra, on Castelnovo. The advanced guards of all three corps were pushed further forward, and the cavalry brigades spread themselves in the plain, on the left of the ninth corps. These advanced guards fell in with those of the divisions of King Victor Emmanuel, which were moving in the opposite direction, first with those of the reserve cavalry division and that of Prince Humbert, which were moving from Villafranca on Dossobuono and Ganfardine, then on that of Bixio, which followed on the left of Prince Humbert, as well as on that of Cugia’s division, which was moving on Staffalo, and which was supported by the divisions of Govone and Brignone.
The above-named Italian divisions were engaged on the eastern bank of the Tione. On the western bank of that stream the advanced guard of Cerale’s division fell in with the Austrian reserve division near Alzarea, and under the pressure of superior force was compelled to retire to Oliosi, where Cerale made a determined stand. The Archduke Albrecht reinforced his reserve division by Piret’s brigade of the fifth corps, from the eastern side of the Tione, while Möring and Bauer’s brigade of the same corps advanced against San Rocco di Palazzuolo. The communication between his fifth and ninth corps was secured by the advanced guard of the seventh corps, which was marching from Sona by Zerbare. After a hot fight, in which great bravery was displayed by both sides, Oliosi caught fire, and Cerale was forced to retreat about one o’clock, to Monte Vento. Cerale himself was wounded, and General Villarey, the commander of one of his brigades, was killed.
At Monte Vento, Sirtori’s division, which had advanced fromValeggio to Santa Lucia, on the Tione, covered the right wing of Cerale’s troops, yet without effect, for the Austrians stormed Monte Vento and drove out Cerale, who was forced to retreat on Valeggio. He was not, however, pursued. General Pianelli, who had been left on the right bank of the Mincio, near Monzambano, hearing that Cerale was hard pressed at Oliosi, on his own responsibility led one brigade of his division across the river, and threatened the right flank of the Austrian advance against Monte Vento.
As soon as Monte Vento was evacuated by the Italians, Bauer’s and Möring’s brigades advanced against Sirtori, at Santa Lucia. The Italian general quitted his position here because he was not supported on his left, and retreated about three o’clock to Valeggio. The Austrian reserve division had in the meantime advanced against Salionze and Monzambano. By this hour the left wing of the Italian Army had been completely driven from the field, but the battle still was maintained on the eastern bank of the Tione. In this part of the field the Austrian ninth corps had received orders to halt near Somma Campagna, when Cugia, about eight o’clock, advanced by way of Madonna della Croce. General Hartung occupied Berettara and Casa del Sole in force. He soon received orders to advance on Custozza, when he fell in with Cugia’s division, which was supported on the right by that of Prince Humbert The latter was exposed to frequent attacks of the Austrian cavalry, and was often obliged to throw its battalions into square, in one of which the Prince himself found shelter from the enemy’s horsemen.
On Cugia’s left Brignone was engaged. The latter division was led into action by General La Marmora himself. At Monte Godio it was attacked by the Austrian brigade of Sardier, supported by two other brigades of the seventh Austrian corps. Shortly after mid-day, and after two commanders of his brigades, Gozzani and Prince Amadeus, had been wounded, Brignone was forced to retreat to Custozza. Govone’s division was pushed forward in his place.
After Cerale had been driven from Monte Vento, and Sirtori had retired from Santa Lucia, the seventh Austrian corps, supported by the left brigade of the fifth corps, which had now nothing before it, pressed hard on Govone at Bagolino, and took this place from him. Cugia, now outflanked on his left, was forced to quit Madonna della Croce, and at five o’clock the retreat of the Italian army was general. Slowly the third corps retired beyond Custozza, with its left wing on Prabiano, its right on Villafranca. It was not till seven o’clock in the evening that the Austrians occupied the heights of Custozza. Bixio’s division and the reserve cavalry covered the retreat across the plain, where some detachments of the second corps also came into action.
The two divisions of Angioletti and Longoni, of the second corps, were to have marched from Castelluccio early on the 24th, and crossing the Mincio at Goito, have moved on Villafranca, where they could easily have arrived by ten o’clock in the morning. They did not, however, march at daybreak, and when General La Marmora, who during the action, for some unexplained reason, instead of sending a staff-officer rode to Goito to send these troops forward, he found there, between three and four o’clock, only a weak advanced guard of those divisions. This was sent forward towards Villafranca, and took a slight part in covering the retreat, but the main body of the second corps had not moved from Castelluccio.
The Italian retreat was made, without any orders from the commander-in-chief, by order of the commanders of divisions. Pianelli’s division, after repelling a sally against it by the garrison of Peschiera, retired on Monzambano, Cerale’s and Sirtori’s on Valeggio, Brignone’s on Molino di Volta. Of the third corps Govone and Cugia retired to Valeggio, Prince Humbert and Bixio to Goito. The first corps recrossed the river on the afternoon and evening of the 24th; the third corps and the cavalry in the night The third corps rallied at Volta, the cavalry between Goito and Cerlango. The bridge of Valeggio was destroyed.
The army of King Victor Emmanuel was withdrawn behind the Oglio. Cialdini, who, on the news of the Battle of Custozza, did not cross the Lower Po, moved towards his left, and posted his troops near Mirandola and Modena, so as to be in close communication with the army of the king.
The Austrians lost nine hundred and sixty killed, three thousand six hundred and ninety wounded, and nearly one thousand prisoners, who were for the most part captured by Pianelli. The Italians lost seven hundred and twenty killed, three thousand one hundred and twelve wounded, and four thousand three hundred and fifteen missing.
A pause in the operations was necessary to allow the Italian army time to recover from the disaster of Custozza. On the 30th, detachments of the Austrian cavalry crossed the Mincio, and pushed as far as the Chiese, but the Archduke Albrecht bad no intention or design of invading Lombardy.
The volunteers under General Garibaldi amounted to about six thousand men. They were divided upon three lines. The main body was collected by the 20th June, in front of Rocca d’Ans, a small detachment was p
laced near Edolo, on the road which leads through the pass of the Monte Tonale into the Tyrol, another detachment near Bormio on the road which leads over the Stelvio.
On the 22nd June, Garibaldi’s main body crossed the frontier near Storo, but found the population of the Tyrol entirely opposed to them, and staunchly loyal to the House of Hapsburg. On the 25th, a sharp combat took place at the frontier bridge of Cassarobach, in which the Italians were worsted. They retired towards Bogolino. Near this town they were attacked by an Austrian detachment on the 3rd July, and again suffered a reverse. In this engagement General Garibaldi was wounded.
The Austrians crossed the frontier by the Tonal and Stelvio roads with small detachments, and several skirmishes took place in these directions between the 23rd June and 3rd July.
As soon as after the battle of Königgrätz Venetia was offered by the Government of Vienna to the Emperor of the French, the fifth and ninth Austrian corps were withdrawn from Italy, and forwarded to the Danube. There then remained in Venetia, besides the garrisons of the fortress, only one Austrian corps, and in the Tyrol a weak detachment under General Kuhn.
The Italian army rested for a space after the Battle of Custozza, but an advance was rendered necessary by the alliance with Prussia. The disaster of Custozza had caused both the country and the army to lose confidence in La Marmora. The command-in-chief was given to General Cialdini, who was ordered to cross the Lower Po, and push troops against the Tyrol and into Eastern Venetia.
On the evening of the 7th July, Cialdini, leaving a division to watch Borgoforte, and another near Ferrara, concentrated seven divisions near Carbonara and Felonica, and that evening threw some detachments of light troops across the Po at Massa. On the night of the 8th, three bridges of boats were thrown across the stream at Carbanarola, Sermide, and Felonica, and on the 9th the army crossed at these points, covered from any attack by the marshes which in this direction lie between the Po and the Adige. After having passed the Po under cover of this natural obstacle, Cialdini made a flank march to his right, gained the high road which leads from Ferrara by Rovigo to Padua, and opened his communication with Ferrara by military bridges thrown across the river to replace the road and railway bridges which, on the night of the 9th, the Austrians blew up, as well as the works of Rovigo. On the 10th Cialdini’s headquarters arrived at Rovigo, and on the 14th, after securing the passage of the Adige at Monselice, his advanced guard occupied Padua.
The division which Cialdini left under Nunziante, in front of Borgoforte, besieged that place. The batteries were armed by the 16th and opened on the 17th. On the night of the 18th, the place was evacuated by the Austrian garrison, which retired to Mantua, and was occupied by the Italians, who captured there seventy guns, and magazines of all kinds.
As the progress of events in the north pointed to the conclusion of an armistice, the terms of which would compel, in all probability, the troops on both sides to remain in their actual positions, the Italians determined to gain as much ground as possible before diplomacy might cause their army to halt.
Cialdini, on the 19th, had with him about seventy thousand men, and an expeditionary force to reinforce him was being prepared, which would bring into the field about seventy thousand additional combatants. The Austrian troops in Italy which could take the field mustered little over thirty thousand men. That day, the Italian general commenced his advance from Padua. To Vicenza, which on the 15th had been entered by a weak advanced detachment, one division was sent; the remainder of the army moved to the left bank of the Brenta. The right wing marched to Mestre, to cut Venice off on the land side, while the fleet, as was intended, should attack it from the sea. The centre was directed along the railway which leads by Treviso and Udine to the Isonzo; the left wing was to act against the Tyrol. The reserve, which was being brought rapidly forward, was to hold the line of the Adige. Medici’s division was to move on Primolano and through the Sugana valley upon Trent, while Garibaldi, with his volunteers, was to act from the west against the same place.
As Cialdini advanced, the Austrian field troops under General Maroicic withdrew from the quadrilateral, and retired gradually behind the Piave, the Livenza, the Tagliamento, and finally, behind the Isonzo. On the 22nd, they evacuated Udine, which, on the 24th, was occupied by the Italians, with two corps. No resistance was made by the Austrians until the Italian advanced guard, on the 25th, passed beyond Palmanovo, when a sharp skirmish took place with the Austrian rearguard. As a truce had, however, been concluded on the 25th, it led to no results. In the meantime, Cialdini had pushed detachments by Schio towards Roveredo and by Belluno, as far as Avronzo, on his left, while on his right his troops were close up to Venice and Chioggia. A truce was agreed upon on the 22nd, which was extended from week to week, until on the 12th August an armistice was concluded. The line of the Indrio was fixed as the line of demarcation between the troops on either side.
As soon as the armistice between Prussia and Austria had been agreed to upon the 22nd July, the Austrian troops which had been transferred from Venetia to the Danube were sent back to the Isonzo, but on account of the subsequent peace were not called upon to act. In the meantime operations had been carried on against the Southern Tyrol. On the 20th July, Medici received orders at Vigo d’Arzere to push through the Val Sugana upon Trent. He reached Bassano on the 21st, with about twelve thousand men and eighteen guns: the same evening he pushed his advanced guard to Carpano. Hence he detached a regiment to his right and one to his left to turn the works which the Austrians had thrown up at Primolano, to cover the junction of the roads to Feltre and Trent.
On the 22nd, with his main body he marched against these works, which the Austrians evacuated as soon as they heard of their being threatened to be turned. On the 23rd, Medici found the bridge over the Strigno barricaded, but not defended, and, after a slight opposition, that evening entered Borgo. On the 24th he pushed his advanced guards to Pergine and Vigolo. That day General Kuhn telegraphed to Verona for reinforcements, and on the 25th received from that place about eight thousand men. With them and the four thousand he had near Trent, he determined to fall upon Medici, and push him back.
On the 25th a slight combat took place between some of Kuhn’s outposts and the Italian advanced guard near Sorda; but nothing further occurred on account of the receipt of the intelligence of the conclusion of the armistice. Garibaldi had made some movements from the west against the Tyrol, but without great success. On the 14th, after crossing the frontier, he fixed his headquarters at Storo. On the 19th he captured the small fort of Ampola. The Austrians made several attacks against the Italian volunteers, who tried to secure the roads leading through the mountains. This irregular warfare led to no great successes on either side. Though Garibaldi attempted to gain as much ground as possible, he did not occupy much at the . time of the conclusion of the armistice. By that date he held the valley of the Chiese for a length of only ten miles from the Italian frontier, and in the Val di Conzei, one of his regiments was advanced two miles to the north of Riva. On the pass over Monte Tonale the Italians were repulsed by an Austrian detachment, and never effected a lodgement beyond the frontier.
CHAPTER 2: Naval Operations
Of the Italian fleet great things were expected. The long coast-line of Italy, and the mercantile habits of the natives of many of her seaboard towns, had for a long succession of years been calculated to foster seamen, and to lay the foundation for an efficient navy. The result of the war caused bitter disappointment to the Italian people.
The Italian fleet was assembled at Tarento in the middle of May, and the command of it given to Admiral Persano. He divided it into three squadrons. The first squadron, under the immediate command of Persano himself, consisted of the ironclad vessels Re d’Italia, Re di Portagallo, San Martino, Ancona, Maria Pia, Castelfidardo, and Affondatore; a flotilla of five gunboats was attached to this active squadron. The second, or auxiliary squadron, was formed of unplated vessels. In it were the frigates Maria Adelaide, Duca di Gen
ova, Vittorio Emanuele, Gaeta, Principe Umberto, Carlo Alberto, Garibaldi, and the corvettes Clotilda, Etna, San Giovanni, and Guiscardo. The third squadron consisted of three battering vessels and two gunboats; and the transport squadron included fifteen vessels, which could convey in all about twenty thousand men across the Adriatic.
On the declaration of war the fleets sailed from Tarento to Ancona, and cast anchor there on the 25th of June.
Here Persano heard of the disaster of Custozza, and resolved to wait until the new plan for the operations of the land army had been decided upon, leaving one vessel, the Esploratore, to cruise outside of the harbour.
On the 27th the Austrian fleet, under the command of Admiral Tegethoff, appeared in front of Ancona. Some shots were exchanged between the Exploratore and the leading Austrian vessel, the Elisabeth, but no further engagement took place, for, before Persano could weigh anchor and come out to fight, the Austrian fleet retired.
For a length of time Persano remained inactive in Ancona. When Cialdini advanced into Venetia, he was, however, ordered to act, and he determined to attack Lissa.
The island of Lissa lies in the Adriatic, some thirty miles south of Spalato. Between it and the main land lie the islands of Lesina, Brazza, and Solta. Between Lissa and Lesina there is a strait of a breadth of about fifteen miles. In Lissa there are two ports, those of San Giorgio and of Comisa.