centuries. In Puerto Rico, the tiple was used in orchestras that played European
dances such as waltzes and minuets. Its shape is similar to the Puerto Rican cu-
atro . The Colombian tiple is very similar in shape to a guitar. It has 12 metal strings arranged in four triple courses. It is tuned d-g-b-e like the first four strings of the
guitar. It is used in Andean Colombian music as well as in other Latin American
folkloric musical styles (see bambuco ). The Venezuelan tiple is a little different.
It has either four of five strings arranged in double or triple courses. Other tiples
have a variable number of metallic strings that range from four single strings like
the Peruvian tiple to ten strings arranged in five double courses like the Cuban one.
All of them look like small guitars.
Further Reading
Cuatro Project. The Tiples of Puerto Rico [Online]. The Cuatro Project Web site, www.
cuatro-pr.org/Home/Eng/Instrmus/Tiples/tiples.htm .
Raquel Paraíso
Tonada
Tonada is the name given to different modalities of traditional music, which var-
ies based on the country. In Cuba, tonada designates the melody with which the
punto cubano is sung. It is named after the choruses, authors, musical referents, or
devices that are used and aimed at different purposes, situations, and themes. In Ec-
uador, tonada is a type of music and dance derived from the dancing genre. It is
written in a minor pitch and in a 6/8 beat measure. The titles of these tonadas suggest
their textual content, which is written in quatrains with one verse used as the chorus.
In Ecuador tonada is typical of the Creole Carnival in the province of Chimborazo.
In Chile, tonada is the name of a mono-rhythmic folk singing, which may or may
not have chorus. It is characterized by its alternation and metric superposition of the
melody (6/8 and 3/4 beat measure). It is accompanied by guitars and harps and its
verses are different forms of eight-syllable verses. They are classified according to
the situation in which they are sung: serenade, praise, or blessing for the grooms,
romance, corrido, or Christmas carol. In Argentina, tonada designates a Creole
rural song sung by one or two voices in parallel thirds. It juxtaposes 3/4 and 6/8
410 | Tres
compasses for the accompaniment and the singing. It is always performed by string
instruments in different combinations and is one of the most representative musics
of the region of Cuyo. In Venezuela, tonada is a genre of song inspired in the tradi-
tional plain chants from which it takes its basic melodic twists. Although the tertiary
metric is very frequent, it is performed with a great freedom of metric and tempo. It
is usually about love and it is accompanied by the cuatro. Finally, in the Dominican
Republic, tonada is a type of rural song sung a capella or with accompaniment. Un-
like other regions, in the Dominican Republic the tonada does not have particular
characteristics; instead it is the performer who identifies it as a tonada.
Further Reading
Schechter, John M. Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions. New York:
Schirmer Books, 1999.
Neris González and Liliana Casanella
Tres
The tres is a six-string guitar -
like instrument, which, due to
its rich history, is considered
the national string instrument
of Cuba. The tres is frequently
used in
punto
guajiro and
son . The modern tres devel-
oped from two distinct sources.
The first was from Spanish dou-
ble-strung instruments that per-
formed a harmonic function. The
other was from (with a reinter-
pretation) types of indigenous
African chordophones. In Cuba,
these single-strung African chor-
dophones were turned into three
double courses, for which the
tres was named. From a morpho-
logic point of view, the instru-
ment possesses diverse variants
Arsenio Rodríguez plays the tres in a recording
according to the form and shape
studio in the 1950s. (Frank Driggs Collection/Getty of the body.
Images)
Tres | 411
Its transmission and performance practices developed both orally and experi-
mentally. The tres is sometimes plucked with a tortoise shell pick and at times with
the fingers of the right hand. Its technique is based on three fundamental move-
ments: punteado (finger picking), rayado (strumming), and alza-púa (alternate picking). The rhythmic and accented patterns are associated with the Bantu and
Dahomeyan peoples, which has reinforced the alza-púa technique. Records show
that the tres developed simultaneously in eastern, western, and central regions of
Cuba but there is one legendary figure, Nené Manfugás, who supposedly brought
the tres from the village of Baracoa to Santiago de Cuba around 1892.
The son and punto guajiro have emerged as the genres best suited for the tres. It is used especially in smaller ensembles, such as sexteto and septeto, where it acts as a lead instrument and is responsible for introductions and transitions, similar to
a tumbao . It can be a solo or an accompanying instrument, but it is mainly used in
son to establish patterns that fade then reappear within the context of the piece,
which gives it a unique character. At times, it assumes an improvisational role,
which requires a virtuosic execution, and alternates with the guitar. It is also a key
element in guiding the way the other instruments of the ensemble interact and com-
pliment each other.
In addition to the son , the tres is regularly used in the performance of other tra-
ditional genres such as changüí , sucu sucu , and guaracha . In changüí, the tres functions as a kind of lead instrument used to articulate melodic rhythmic patterns
and emphasize accents. It has many roles within the changüí : it provides introduc-
tions, accompanies other instruments, creates melodies, facilitates the climaxes of
the piece, and it performs additional phrases that act as instrumental fill-ins at the
end of each verse. In sucu sucu, it performs a plucking pattern that is maintained
throughout a piece, while in guaracha it generally has a harmonic function. In the
punto guajiro, it takes on an improvisatory and harmonic role while also perform-
ing virtuosic passages in the interludes between verses.
Notable performers include Arsenio Rodríguez, Niño Rivera, Isaac Oviedo,
Luis Lija, Chito Latamblet, Pancho Amat, and Juan de la Cruz Antomarchi Cotó.
These treseros were among the first to establish a definitive style for the tres that was carried on by subsequent generations of players. By the 1940s, the tres became well
known within other genres of popular music such as the conjunto , as well as those
previously mentioned. Also, since the end of the 1980s works have been composed,
both solo and chamber, for the tres and symphony orchestra. Since 1990, the
study of the tres has been institutionalized and included in schools of music. Tres
methods in Cuba developed such as the one by Félix Guerrero in 1927 and more
recently, a method by Efrain Amador and Doris Oropesa. Although it is considered
a native instrument of Cub
a, it has a well-known presence in Puerto Rico where it
is strung as three triple courses especially in their interpretation of traditional salsa
music.
412 | Tresillo
Rodríguez, Arsenio
Blind since childhood, Ignacio Jacinto Loyola Rodríguez, also known as El ciego
maravilloso (1911–1970), played the marimbula, botija, tingo talango, and tres.
He created a unique style of guitar playing notable for its sonority and vir-
tuosity, its improvisatory capacity and its rhythmic and percussive use of the
strings.
Around 1930, he joined the son performers of Havana, Cuba, and started
performing with the Sexteto Boston, which he would later direct. His work with
the son septet led to its redefi nition as conjunto. Rodríguez added accompa-
nying instruments to the son including the piano, a set of congas, and three
trumpets. In 1940 Rodriguez created his own orchestra, which was called
Conjunto de Arsenio Rodríguez. Rodríguez infl uenced the development of son
by creating a new pattern within the genre, and additionally, he widened and
developed the rhythm section. Rodríguez is the composer of famous pieces
such as “Bruca maniguá,” “La vida es un sueño,” and “Dile a Catalina.” Latin
musicians such as Willie Colón and Johnny Pacheco cited him as the originator
of the main school of salsa.
Further Reading
García, David F. Arsenio Rodríguez and the Transnational Flows of Latin Popular
Music. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 2006.
Neris González and Liliana Casanella
Further Reading
González, Nelson. Tres Guitar Method. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications, 2006.
González Bello, Neris, Liliana Casanella y Grizel Hernández. La Encuesta del Siglo XX.
Música Cubana. Multimedia. (Inédito).
Sublette, Ned. Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chi-
cago Review Press, 2004.
Neris González and Liliana Casanella
Tresillo
Tresillo is a rhythmic group used abundantly in Cuban and salsa music. It consists of a three-note measure and therefore becomes the first measure of a 3–2 clave or
the second measure of a 2–3 clave. The rhythm of these three notes is described as
fuerte (strong) and begins the tension that is relaxed in the two-note measure of the
Trío
Nordestino
|
413
clave. The tresillo’s presence in Cuban music can be traced back to African musi-
cal practices, one example being Yoruban music featuring 6/8 measures containing
one eighth-note every other beat. In 2/4, such a measure can be written as a dotted
8th, 16th, 8th rest, and 8th note. With a slight duration change, the 2/4 measure be-
comes two-dotted eighth notes plus an eighth note, yielding the first measure of a
3–2 son clave, signature of the Cuban son . Tresillo also occurs in the rumba clave with slight duration alterations, and the cinquillo rhythm becomes tresillo with the removal of the second and forth notes. This three-note grouping not only occurs
in Cuban popular music and Latin jazz, but in all forms of jazz, even those forms
most would assume have no Latin elements. Breaks before solos, composing pat-
terns, horn backgrounds, lead melodies, and phrasings during a solo are all based
on the tresillo.
Claves
An example of tresillo rhythm on claves over two measures. (George Torres)
Further Reading
Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. “Black Music in the Circum-Caribbean.” American Music 17,
no. 1 (Spring 1999): 1–37.
Raymond Epstein
Trío Nordestino
Trío nordestino means Northeastern trio, but it can designate two distinct elements
in the realm of Brazilian music. It can refer to the trio created by Luiz Gonzaga
(1912–1989) around the 1950s to play mainly Northeastern dance music, such as
forró music. The trio is made up of zabumba (a medium-size double-headed drum), piano accordion, and triangle. Trío Nordestino is also the name of a famous forró
group that appeared in the 1960s playing in the Northeastern trio formation. The
first members of the group were: Lindu (Lindolfo Barbosa), singing, playing piano
accordion, and composing many of their hits; Coroné on zabumba; and Cobrinha
on triangle (these last two members are known by their nicknames).
With regard to the first meaning, according to recent research this type of trio
did not exist before Gonzaga and, hence, he was the creator of trío nordestino.
He wanted to perform with a group of instruments that were known and familiar
to Northeasterners. Gonzaga also placed the instruments on stage thinking about
sound balance: zabumba on the left, accordion in the middle, and triangle on the
right (as seen by the audience). Another advantage of this particular instrument
formation was the ease of finding players for the group. Considering that Gonzaga
414 | Trío Romántico
used to travel through the interior setting up performances on the way, this forma-
tion was an easy way to deal with his need to find musicians in different locations
(three musicians, readily available) and the rough playing conditions (no ampli-
fication). This trio can also be called regional nordestino (Northeastern regional
ensemble).
With regard to the second meaning, Trío Nordestino represents, in the trajectory
of forró music, a transition between Luiz Gonzaga’s and Jackson do Pandeiro’s
(1919–1982) styles. In the recordings, Gonzaga’s trio experimented with going
beyond the three instruments adding the electric bass, drumset, cavaquinho (small
four-string guitar), flutes, pandeiro (a sort of large tambourine with little jingles around the side), agogô (double cowbell), shakers, and guitars (six, seven and ten
strings). Trío Nordestino’s lyrics were characteristically hot and good humored.
Some songs used double entendre, while others were more subtle, but most of them
drew upon Northeastern issues and themes.
The group had one of their first hits, “Procurando Tu” (“Searching You”) in 1970,
which was composed by Antonio Barros and had double entendre lyrics. Other
hits came in 1974 including “Chililique,” “Conversa de Motorista” (“Driver’s Con-
versation”), 1975 with “Forró Pesado” (“Heavy Forró”), and 1978 with “Chinelo
de Rosinha” (“Rosinha’s flip-flop”), “Forró no Claro” (“Forró at Daylight”), and
“Petrolina/Juazeiro.”
Trío Nordestino was claimed to be the best Northeastern music group during
the dictatorship (1964–1984). Despite the fact that their members changed over
the years, Trío Nordestino continuously released recordings including seven disks
in the 1960s, nine in the 1970s, ten in the 1980s, seven in the 1990s, and since
2000 two CDs have been released. Nowadays, prompted by the university forró
movement, the trio has Luís Mário, son of Lindu on triangle and vocals, Bebeto,
godson of Lindu on accordion, and Carlinhos Coroneto, grandson of Coroné on
zabumba.
Further Reading
Fernandes, Adriana. “Music, Migrancy, and Modernity: A Study of Brazilian Forró.”
Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2005.
Adriana Fernandes
Trío Romántico<
br />
The trío romántico is a vocal and instrumental ensemble that consists of three sing-
ers, usually male, sometimes accompanied by guitar and percussion. The musical
repertoire is dominated by the bolero , though most trios include other genres such
Trío
Romántico
|
415
as vals , son , cha-cha-chá as well as regional varieties like the vals peruano and
huapangos . The height of the trio romántico’s popularity was in the 1940s and
1950s, with the most internationally famous trío romántico, Trío Los Panchos,
which defined the standard for trío romántico performance practice. The popularity
of the tríos romantícos largely coincided with the career of Los Panchos and their
emulators. Some of these groups continued to have success into the 1970s. Today’s
trios have reverted to the style represented by Los Panchos, and they can be found
performing in urban centers in Latin America and abroad. Their repertoire looks
back to the classic Época de oro (golden age of the 1940s and 1950s) songs made
famous by Los Panchos.
Trios románticos developed their performance style from a mix of different in-
fluences. The music consists of voices, chordal instruments, a lead instrument,
and layered percussion: an instrumentation found in many Latin American popular
music ensembles. By the 1930s other important groups had influenced the genera-
tion of trio performers. These included Los Hermanos Martínez Gil (1928) and Trio
Calaveras (1938). By the time Los Panchos debuted in 1944, there were signs that
the performance of the urban bolero was returning to a guitar-based instrumenta-
tion with a higher, sweeter-sounding contratenor as the lead voice.
The standard trío ensemble now consists of vocals, guitars, and rhythm sec-
tion. The vocals are usually three independent vocal lines with a lead tenor ( prim-
era voz ) and two lower harmonizing vocals ( segunda and tercera voz ). Often, the upper voice sings the melody while the bottom voices move along stepwise to fit
the harmony. In a typical performance, the three voices may sing the song together
in rhythmic unison the first time through, and the second time through the lead
sings the melody with words while the two lower voices hum a background har-
Encyclopedia of Latin American Popular Music Page 70