by Jamie Metzl
74Bettina Bock von Wülfingen, “Contested Change: How Germany Came to Allow PGT,” Reproductive Biomedicine and Society Online 3 (2016): 60–67, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405661816300387.
75Michelle J. Bayefsky, “Comparative Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis Policy in Europe and the USA and Its Implications for Reproductive Tourism,” Reproductive Biomedicine and Society Online 3 (2016): 41–47, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405661817300047.
76“Cross-Border Reproductive Care: A Committee Opinion,” Fertility and Sterility 100(2013): 645–650, http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015–0282(13)00396–8/fulltext.
77An active debate is ongoing about whether China is a genetic Wild West. For the affirmative argument, see: Didi Kirsten Tatlow, “A Scientific Ethical Divide Between China and West,” New York Times, June 29, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/30/science/a-scientific-ethical-divide-between-china-and-west.html. For a well-articulated opposing view, see: Douglas Sipp and Duanqing Pei, “Bioethics in China: No Wild East,” Nature 534 (2016): 465–467, https://www.nature.com/news/bioethics-in-china-no-wild-east-1.20116; and Ian Johnson and Cao Li, “China Experiences a Booming Underground Market in Surrogate Motherhood,” New York Times, August 2, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/03/world/asia/china-experiences-a-booming-black-market-in-child-surrogacy.html. See also Genome Editing and Human Reproduction. Report. July 17, 2018, Nuffield Council on Bioethics. http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/Genome-editing-and-human-reproduction-FINAL-website.pdf, 110–111.
78Alta R. Charo, “On the Road (to a Cure?)—Stem-Cell Tourism and Lessons for Gene Editing,” New England Journal of Medicine 374 (2016): 901–903, http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1600891.
79Mahsa Shabani and Pascal Borry, “Rules for Processing Genetic Data for Research Purposes in View of the New EU General Data Protection Regulation,” European Journal of Human Genetics 26, no. 2 (2017): 149–56, doi:10.1038/s41431-017-0045-7.
80Richard Bird, “Where Are We Now with Data Protection Law in China?” Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, 2017, https://www.freshfields.com/en-us/our-thinking/campaigns/digital/data/where-are-we-now-with-data-protection-law-in-china/.
81Wenxin Fan, Natasha Khan, and Liza Lin, “China Snares Innocent and Guilty Alike to Build World’s Biggest DNA Database,” Wall Street Journal, December 26, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-snares-innocent-and-guilty-alike-to-build-worlds-biggest-dna-database-1514310353; Echo Huang, “China Is Creating a Massive ‘Orwellian’ DNA Database,” Quartz, May 16, 2017, https://qz.com/984400/china-is-creating-a-massive-orwellian-dna-database-to-construct-harmonic-society/; “China: Police DNA Database Threatens Privacy,” May 15, 2017, Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/05/15/china-police-dna-database-threatens-privacy. For more on repression in Xinjiang, including the Uighur population being required to submit blood samples, see “China Has Turned Xinjiang into a Police State Like No Other,” The Economist, May 31, 2018, accessed June 3, 2018, https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/05/31/china-has-turned-xinjiang-into-a-police-state-like-no-other?frsc=dg|e. In August 2019, a UN Human Rights panel announced it had received credible reports that China was holding approximately one million Uighurs in “massive internment camps.” Reuters. “U.N. Says It Has Credible Reports That China Holds Million Uighurs in Secret Camps.” New York Times, August 10, 2018, accessed August 15, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/08/10/world/asia/10reuters-china-rights-un.html. Not surprisingly, Beijing quickly refuted this claim. “China Has Prevented ‘Great Tragedy’ in Xinjiang, State-Run Paper Says,” Reuters, August 13, 2018, accessed August 15, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-rights-un/china-has-prevented-great-tragedy-in-xinjiang-state-run-paper-says-idUSKBN1KY01B?il=0. The UK Home Office was in 2018 also exploring the possibility of creating a centralized database of all the biometric data collected from UK citizens.
CHAPTER 10
1Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker makes a compelling case for this point. Steven Pinker, Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress (London: Allen Lane, 2018).
2Because ill-informed concepts of genetics have underpinned racism, colonialism, eugenics, and discrimination for centuries, discussing genetics and particular outcomes like sports prowess is rightly sensitive. For thoughtful considerations of how tricky it can be to explore genetics and race see: David Reich, “How Genetics Is Changing Our Understanding of ‘Race,’” New York Times, March 23, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/23/opinion/sunday/genetics-race.html and Siddhartha Mukherjee, The Gene: An Intimate History (London: Vintage, 2017), 341–345.
3David J. Epstein, The Sports Gene: What Makes the Perfect Athlete (London: Yellow Jersey Press, 2013). See also: A. de la Chapelle, A. L. Traskelin, and E. Juvonen, “Truncated Erythropoietin Receptor Causes Dominantly Inherited Benign Human Erythrocytosis,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90 (1993): 4495–4499, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC46538/pdf/pnas01462–0175.pdf; David Epstein, “Eero Mäntyranta–Finland’s Champion. 1937–2013: Obituary,” The Science of Sport, December 31, 2013, http://sportsscientists.com/2013/12/eero-mantyranta-finlands-champion-1937–2013-obituary/.
4Eynon et al., “Genes for Elite Power and Sprint Performance: ACTN3 Leads the Way.” Sports Medicine, September 2013, accessed May 1, 2018, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23681449.
5Ross Tucker, Vincent O. Onywera, and Jordan Santos-Concejero, “Analysis of the Kenyan Distance-Running Phenomenon,” International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 10 (2015): 285–291, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264745551_Analysis_of_the_Kenyan_Distance-Running_Phenomenon.
6To be clear, this success was not based on genetics alone but instead resulted from the complex interaction of genotypic, phenotypic, and socioeconomic factors. This topic is hotly debated. See Max Fisher, “Why Kenyans Make Such Great Runners: A Story of Genes and Cultures.” The Atlantic, April 17, 2012, accessed June 6, 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/04/why-kenyans-make-such-great-runners-a-story-of-genes-and-cultures/256015/; and Alex Hutchinson, “Kenyan Dominance, Real and Imagined,” Runner’s World, May 25, 2018, accessed June 6, 2018, https://www.runnersworld.com/training/a20846404/kenyan-dominance-real-and-imagined/.
7Andrew Roos and Thomas Roos, “Genetics of Athletic Performance,” Stanford University, May 15, 2012, https://web.stanford.edu/class/gene210/files/projects/Gene210-AthleticsPresentation-Roos.pdf.
8Olympic officials for the first time tested athletes for “gene doping” at the 2016 Rio Olympics to see if they had evidence of gene therapies being used to increase a given athlete’s ability to produce red blood cells. Eric Niiler, “Olympic Drug Cops Will Scan For Genetically Modified Athletes,” Wired, July 28, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/07/olympic-drug-cops-will-scan-genetically-modified-athletes/.
9Nick Webborn et al., “Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing for Predicting Sports Performance and Talent Identification: Consensus Statement,” British Journal of Sports Medicine 49 (2015): 1486–1491, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26582191.
10Ron Synovitz and Zamira Eshanova, “Uzbekistan Is Using Genetic Testing to Find Future Olympians,” The Atlantic, February 6, 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/02/uzbekistan-is-using-genetic-testing-to-find-future-olympians/283001/.
11Hoon Choi and Lvaro Choi, “When One Door Closes: The Impact of the Hagwon Curfew on the Consumption of Private Tutoring in the Republic of Korea,” SSRN Electronic Journal (2015), http://www.ub.edu/irea/working_papers/2015/201526.pdf.
12Malleta, King, “Why Korean Parents Give Their Kids Plastic Surgery as Graduation Gifts,” NextShark, December 23, 2016, accessed August 9, 2018, https://nextshark.com/why-korean-parents-give-their-kids-plastic-surgery-as-graduation-gifts/; Wei, Will, “Why Korean Parents Are Having Their Kids Get Plastic Surgery before College.” Business Insider, November 25, 2017, accessed August 09, 20
18, https://www.businessinsider.com/eyelid-surgery-in-south-korea-2015–11.
13Patricia Marx, “About Face,” New Yorker, March 23, 2015, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23/about-face.
14William Wan, “In China, Parents Bribe to Get Students into Top Schools, Despite Campaign against Corruption,” Washington Post, October 7, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/in-china-parents-bribe-to-get-students-into-top-schools-despite-campaign-against-corruption/2013/10/07/fa8d9d32–2a61–11e3–8ade-a1f23cda135e_story.html?utm_term=.c79e7e712e12.
15Kitty Bu and Maxim Duncan, “Playtime a Luxury for Competitive Chinese Kids,” Reuters, November 23, 2009, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-children-play/playtime-a-luxury-for-competitive-chinese-kids-idUSTRE5AM16920091123.
16Peter Foster, “Third of Chinese Primary School Children Suffer Stress, Study Finds,” The Telegraph, January 19, 2010, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7027377/Third-of-Chinese-primary-school-children-suffer-stress-study-finds.html.
17Alvin A. Rosenfeld and Nicole Wise, The Over-Scheduled Child: Avoiding the Hyper-Parenting Trap (New York: St. Martins Griffin, 2001).
18Timothy Caulfield et al., “Marginally Scientific? Genetic Testing of Children and Adolescents for Lifestyle and Health Promotion,” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2 (2015): 627–644, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5034400/.
19Antonio Regalado, “Baby Genome Sequencing for Sale in China,” MIT Technology Review, June 15, 2017, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608086/baby-genome-sequencing-for-sale-in-china/.
20Kalokairinou et al., “Legislation of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing in Europe: A Fragmented Regulatory Landscape,” Journal of Community Genetics 9 (2018): 117–132. In the United States, companies like Salesforce, OpenTable, and Snap now offer their employees free genetic screening to assess hereditary disease risk. In 2018, creative investigators set up fake consumer genetic profiles based on DNA samples found at crime scenes four decades ago to identify the genetic relatives of and ultimately catch the Golden State Killer. Clearly, consumer genetic information clearly cannot be a free-for-all. Megan Molteni, “The Creepy Genetics Behind the Golden State Killer Case,” Wired, May 4, 2018, accessed May 29, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/detectives-cracked-the-golden-state-killer-case-using-genetics/.
21S. Roberts et al., “Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: User Motivations, Decision Making, and Perceived Utility of Results,” Public Health Genomics 20, no. 1, (January 10, 2017): 36–45, accessed May 1, 2018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28068660. For a full list of references on this topic, see http://www.genomes2people.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/PGen_Publications.pdf.
22Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184.
23Elsa B. Kania, Battlefield Singularity: Artificial Intelligence, Military Revolution, and China’s Future Military Power, Center for a New American Security, November 2017, 51, https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.cnas.org/documents/Battlefield-Singularity-November-2017.pdf?mtime=20171129235804.
24The National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan, National Science and Technology Council, October 2016, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/whitehouse_files/microsites/ostp/NSTC/national_ai_rd_strategic_plan.pdf.
25Issued by the State Council New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Planning Notice No. 35 [2017] The People’s Governments of Provinces, Autonomous Regions, and Municipalities Directly under the Central Government, the Ministries and Commissions of the State Council, and the Agencies Directly under the State Council, July 8, 2017, accessed June 18, 2018, http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017–07/20/content_5211996.htm.
26Ma Si, “Key AI Guidelines Unveiled,” China Daily, December 15, 2017, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201712/15/WS5a330a41a3108bc8c6734c64.html; Neil Connor, “Anxious Chinese Parents Cause Gene Testing Boom as They Try to Discover Young Children’s Talents,” The Telegraph, February 11, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/02/11/anxious-chinese-parents-fuel-gene-testing-boom-try-discover/.
27“Chinese AI Startups Scored More Funding Than America’s Last Year,” MIT Technology Review, February 14, 2018, https://www.technologyreview.com/the-download/610271/chinas-ai-startups-scored-more-funding-than-americas-last-year/.
28Graham Webster et al., “China’s Plan to ‘Lead’ in AI: Purpose, Prospects, and Problems,” New America, August 1, 2017, https://www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/blog/chinas-plan-lead-ai-purpose-prospects-and-problems/.
29See Coral Davenport, “In the Trump Administration, Science Is Unwelcome. So Is Advice,” New York Times, June 9, 2018, accessed June 18, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/09/climate/trump-administration-science.html.
30Chappellet-Lanier, Tajha. “White House Announces Creation of Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence,” Fedscoop, May 10, 2018, accessed August 09, 2018, https://www.fedscoop.com/white-house-artifical-intelligence-committee-kratsios/.
31David Cyranoski, “China’s Bid to Be a DNA Superpower,” Nature 534 (2016): 462–463, http://www.nature.com/news/china-s-bid-to-be-a-dna-superpower-1.20121.
32Susan Decker, “China Becomes One of the Top 5 U.S. Patent Recipients for the First Time,” Bloomberg News, January 9, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-09/china-enters-top-5-of-u-s-patent-recipients-for-the-first-time.
33Reinhilde Veugelers, “China Is the World’s New Science and Technology Powerhouse,” Bruegel, August 30, 2017, http://bruegel.org/2017/08/china-is-the-worlds-new-science-and-technology-powerhouse/. Ben Guarino, Emily Rauhala, and William Wan, “China Increasingly Challenges American Dominance of Science,” Washington Post, June 3, 2018, accessed June 6, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/china-challenges-american-dominance-of-science/2018/06/03/c1e0cfe4–48d5–11e8–827e-190efaf1f1ee_story.html.
34Kai-Fu Lee, “China’s Artificial Intelligence Revolution: Understanding Beijing’s Structural Advantages,” Sinovation Ventures (December 2017), https://www.eurasiagroup.net/files/upload/China_Embraces_AI.pdf.
35Eleonore Pauwels and Apratim Vidyarthi, “Who Will Own the Secrets in Our Genes? A U.S.-China Race in Artificial Intelligence and Genomics,” Wilson Center, February 2017, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/who_will_own_the_secrets_in_our_genes.pdf.
36For a healthy debate on this topic see: Jennifer Kulynych and Henry T. Greely, “Clinical Genomics, Big Data, and Electronic Medical Records: Reconciling Patient Rights with Research When Privacy and Science Collide,” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 4 (2017): 94–132, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28852559. See also: Eryn Brown, “Geneticist on DNA Privacy: Make It So People Don’t Care,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jan/18/science/la-sci-sn-george-church-dna-genome-privacy-20130118. Innovative American companies might also find a way of using blockchain and other technologies to stitch together disparate data pools while better protecting individual privacy or of convincing large numbers of informed citizens to opt in.
37iCarbonX, https://www.icarbonx.com/.
38David Ewing Duncan, “Can AI Keep You Healthy?” MIT Technology Review, October 3, 2017, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608987/how-ai-will-keep-you-healthy/.
39Jun Wang, “How Digital DNA Could Help You Make Better Health Choices,” TED17, https://www.ted.com/talks/jun_wang_how_digital_dna_could_help_you_make_better_health_choices/transcript#t-150728.
40Jun Wang, “The Bank of Life Gene Concerning Everyone Is Now Coming,” Medium, April 25, 2016, https://medium.com/@iAskMedia/wang-jun-the-bank-of-life-gene-concerning-everyone-is-now-coming-335353aaf3ee.
41Henny Sender, “China’s Tech Groups Are Building Too Much Power,” Financial Times, August 28, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/858d0312-8988-11e7–8bb1–5ba57d47eff7.
42Tamar Lewin, “Coming to U.S. for Baby, and Womb to Carry It,” New York
Times, July 5, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/06/us/foreign-couples-heading-to-america-for-surrogate-pregnancies.html?hpw&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&version=HpHedThumbWell&module=well-region®ion=bottom-well&WT.nav=bottom-well.
43“List of Invasions,” Wikipedia, last modified July 28, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_invasions.
44Robert Farley et al., “China vs. America: 3 Ways a War in the South China Sea Could Start,” The National Interest, accessed June 24, 2018, http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/china-vs-america-3-ways-war-the-south-china-sea-could-start-26034.
CHAPTER 11
1Rob Carlson, “Splice it Yourself,” Wired, May 1, 2005, https://www.wired.com/2005/05/splice-it-yourself/.
2Bart Kolodziejczyk, “Do-It-Yourself Biology Shows Safety Risks of an Open Innovation Movement,” Brookings Institute Techtank Blog, October 9, 2017, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2017/10/09/do-it-yourself-biology-shows-safety-risks-of-an-open-innovation-movement/. See also: Mallory Locklear, “These Kids Are Learning CRISPR At Summer Camp,” Motherboard, July 27, 2017, https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/kzavja/these-kids-are-learning-crispr-at-summer-camp. Additional information on this topic was provided by Ray McCauley in an email to the author, November 13, 2018.
3Lisa C. Ikemoto, “DIY Bio: Hacking Life in Bioetech’s Backyard,” UC Davis Law Review 51 (2017): 539–568, https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/issues/51/2/Symposium/51–2_Ikemoto.pdf.
4See Emily Baumgaertner, “As D.I.Y. Gene Editing Gains Popularity, ‘Someone Is Going to Get Hurt,’” New York Times, May 14, 2018, accessed May 31, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/14/science/biohackers-gene-editing-virus.html.
5Siddhartha Mukherjee, The Gene: An Intimate History (London: Vintage, 2017), 467.