CHAPTER 12: AN UNLIKELY OFFICER
1. Bathinda is a city in the southern part of the Indian state of Punjab.
2. Dowry refers to the parental transfer of monetary gifts, goods or property to their child’s married family at the time of the wedding.
CHAPTER 13: THE TALENT DIVIDEND
1. ‘Why India needs women to work’, The Economist, 5 July 2018. Available at: https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/07/05/why-india-needs-women-to-work
2. PLFS 2017–18.
3. Estimates on the proportion of the workforce educated to secondary level and above is based on analysis by Tata Sons, using data from past national employment surveys. These include PLFS 2017–18 and the 55th round (1999–2000) of the National Sample Survey Organisation’s ‘Employment and Unemployment in India’ report. The share of the workforce—both men and women—educated to secondary level or above, rose by 14 percentage points over the eighteen years from 1999 to 2017. That works out to around 12 percentage points over fifteen years.
The estimated GDP impact is based on analysis by Tata Sons and Dalberg. It is a supply-side analysis of the GDP increment if half (~60 million) of the secondary and above educated women out of the workforce (~120 million) join paid work. The increment is based on the increase in the number of workers (₹25 trillion or $350 billion) and the accompanying productivity boost that these women bring to the economy given their educational profile (₹6 trillion or $90 billion). Using the references below, the higher education profile translates to a 25 per cent improvement in productivity over the average Indian worker. Note that the estimations are subject to the ability to find appropriate jobs given labour market constraints and the pace at which such absorption can take place.
Angel de la Fuente and Rafael Domenech, ‘Human Capital in Growth Regressions: How much Difference Does Data Quality Make?’, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, 2000. Available at: https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/oececoaaa/262-en.htm; Barbara Sianesi and John Van Reenen, ‘The Returns to Education: Macroeconomics’, Journal of Economic Surveys, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2003. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-6419.00192
4. Career Aspirations: ‘Teen Age Girls Survey (TAG Survey)’, Naandi Foundation, 2018. Available at: https://www.nanhikali.org/teenagegirlsurvey/TAG-Report.pdf
Potential workforce participation for women: Erin K. Fletcher et al., ‘Women and Work in India: Descriptive Evidence and a Review of Potential Policies’, HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series RWP18-004, December 2017. Available at: https://www.hks.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/centers/cid/files/publications/faculty-working-papers/women_work_india_cidwp339.pdf
5. On the G20 comparison: ‘Why India needs women to work’, The Economist, 5 July 2018. Available at: https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/07/05/why-india-needs-women-to-work
Other comparisons: Analysis by Tata Sons using PLFS 2017–18 and the ILOSTAT database.
6. Explaining the decline: K.P. Kannan and G. Raveendran, ‘Counting and Profiling the Missing Labour Force’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVII, No. 6, 11 February 2012. Available at: https://www.epw.in/journal/2012/06/discussion/ counting-and-profiling-missing-labour-force.html
Job loss due to mechanization: ‘Culture and the labour market keep India’s women at home’, The Economist, 5 July 2018. Available at: https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/07/05/culture-and-the-labour-market-keep-indias-women-at-home
CMIE estimates: Mahesh Vyas, ‘11 million jobs lost in 2018’, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd., 08 January 2019. Available at: https://www.cmie.com/kommon/bin/sr.php?kall=warticle&dt=2019-01-08%2009:28:37&msec=666
7. Economic importance of women’s work participation: ‘A guide to womenomics’, The Economist, 12 April 2006. Available at: https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2006/04/12/a-guide-to-womenomics
Female to male ratios in managerial positions: Berta Esteve-Volart, ‘Gender Discrimination and Growth: Theory and Evidence from India’, STICERD - Development Economics Papers, LSE, 2004. Available at: https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:cep:stidep:42
CHAPTER 15: TWICE-HIT ECONOMY
1. Luis Alberto Andres et al., ‘Precarious Drop Reassessing Patterns of Female Labor Force Participation in India’, World Bank, April 2017. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pdf/WPS8024.pdf
2. In many countries, the M-curve has transformed into a trapezoid shape largely due to policy interventions. Take the case of Japan. While it displayed an M-curve until a few years ago, the curve is flattening—signifying that the dip that typically tends to happen at the juncture of marriage/childbirth is not taking place. This has been attributed to policy decisions concerning more day-care support, parental leave benefits, rise in part-time employment, and disclosure of diversity-related data by organizations, among others. For more details see Kathy Matsui et al, ‘Womenomics 5.0’, Goldman Sachs, 18 April 2019. Available at: https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/pages/womenomics-5.0/multimedia/womenomics-5.0-report.pdf; Hikariko Yazaki and Miho Gatayama, ‘Japan’s female labor force set to toss out M-curve’, Nikkei Asian Review, 17 September 2017. Available at: https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Japan-s-female-labor-force-set-to-toss-out-M-curve
3. As much as 31 per cent of girls and women between the ages of fifteen and forty-nine years have given birth before the age of twenty; National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 2015-16. Available at: http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/India.pdf
4. Unpaid care work: ‘The Power of Parity: How Advancing Women’s Equality Can Add $12 Trillion To Global Growth’, McKinsey Global Institute, September 2015. Available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured% 20Insights/Employment%20and%20Growth/How%20advancing%20womens%20equality%20can%20add%2012%20trillion%20to%20global%20growth/MGI%20Power%20of%20parity_Full%20report_September%202015.ashx
Value of unpaid care work: ‘The Power of Parity: Advancing Women’s Equality In India’, McKinsey Global Institute, November 2015. Available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Employment%20and%20Growth/The%20power%20of%20parity%20Advancing%20womens%20equality%20in%20India/MGI%20India%20parity_Full%20report_November%202015.ashx
5. Additional cost for safety: Girija Borker, ‘Safety First: Perceived Risk of Street Harassment and Educational Choices of Women’, Indian Statistical Institute, 2018. Available at: https://www.isid.ac.in/~epu/acegd2018/papers/GirijaBorker.pdf
Hesitation on migration: Rohini Pande et al., ‘How To Get India’s Women Working? First, Let Them Out of the House’, IndiaSpend, 9 April 2016. Available at: https://archive.indiaspend.com/cover-story/how-to-get-indias-women-working-first-let-them-out-of-the-house-74364
6. Assumptions for the chart are as follows: (i) The base salary is the indicative salary of a salaried male undergraduate (from PLFS 2017–18); (ii) a wage penalty of 17 per cent is deducted based on the wage differential between men and women (from PLFS 2017–18), to arrive at the effective salary for a working woman; (iii) based on market rates, estimates for childcare, additional women’s personal care products (likened to ‘pink tax’), and safer commute options have been deducted to arrive at net salary.
7. According to the Census 2011, the child sex ratio (0-6 years) has shown a decline from 927 females per thousand males in 2001 to 919 females per thousand males in 2011, although the overall sex ratio has improved.
8. ‘Indian Human Development Survey’, University of Maryland and the National Council of Applied Economic Research, 2011–2012. Available at: https://ihds.umd.edu//
CHAPTER 17: RELEASING THE TALENT GRIDLOCK
1. ILOSTAT database (women 15+). For details on 25–54 years, see: https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2019/03/26/women-staging-a-labor-force-comeback/
2. Anne Brink et al., ‘Maximum Fee vs. Child Benefit: A Welfare Analysis of Swedish Child-Care Fee Reform’, The Institute for the Study of Labor, April 2007. Availabl
e at: http://ftp.iza.org/dp2748.pdf; Bettina Siflinger and Gerard van den Berg, ‘The Effects of a Universal Child Care Reform on Child Health–Evidence from Sweden’, Annual Conference 2016 (Augsburg): Demographic Change 145765, Verein für Socialpolitik/German Economic Association, 2016. Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/p/zbw/vfsc16/145765.html
3. Mexico’s childcare model: ‘Children’s Stay Program to Support Working Mothers’, Gobierno de México. Available at: https://www.gob.mx/bienestar/acciones-y-programas/estancias-infantiles-para-apoyar-a-madres-trabajadoras
Outcomes of Mexico’s childcare model: Emma Samman et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and the global childcare crisis’, Overseas Development Institute, March 2016. Available at: https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/10333.pdf
4. On Mobile Creches: ‘Our Story’, Mobile Creches. Available at: https://www.mobilecreches.org/our-story
On the impact of Mobile Creches: Annabelle Timsit, ‘An Indian nonprofit is showing how free childcare at work can help disrupt the poverty cycle’, Quartz India, 30 January 2019. Available at: https://qz.com/india/1532477/the-impact-of-free-childcare-on-indias-poverty-cycle/; Annual Report 2017–18, Mobile Creches. Available at: https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/57f05d_c7fab2321a934c85b19af98383bd1158.pdf
5. Balwadis are full-day community day-care centres operated by the NGO Seva Mandir in the villages of Rajasthan, initially started to plug the gaps where Anganwadi centres (public day-care centres) didn’t exist. According to impact reports, Balwadis have enabled more than half of enrolled children’s mothers to pursue livelihood activities.
6. ‘Tackling Childcare: The Business Case for Employer Supported Childcare’, International Finance Corporation, 2017. Available at: https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/cd79e230-3ee2-46ae-adc5-e54d3d649f31/01817+WB+Childcare+Report_FinalWeb3.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CVID=lXu9vP-
7. James Heckman, ‘Invest in Early Childhood Development: Reduce Deficits, Strengthen the Economy’, Heckman: The economics of human potential. Available at: https://heckmanequation.org/resource/invest-in-early-childhood-development-reduce-deficits-strengthen-the-economy/
8. Market estimation: Tata Sons and Dalberg analysis.
Employment potential in the childcare industry: Tata Sons analysis; Somatish Banerji et al., ‘By Women – For Women, Building the childcare ecosystem in India’, Intellecap, 10 December 2018. Available at: https://www.intellecap.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/By-Women-for-Women_Building-the-childcare-ecosystem-in-India.pdf
9. Megha Singh and Neelima Mishra, ‘Felt Obligation and Ageing: A Socio-Cultural Issue’, International Research Journal of Arts and Social Sciences (ISSN: 2251-0028), Vol. 1(1), pp. 1–7, September 2012. Available at: https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/felt-obligation-and-ageing-a-sociocultural-issue.pdf
10. Elder care in Japan: Chris Farrell, ‘What Japan can teach us about long-term care’, Forbes, 24 August 2015. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2015/08/24/what-japan-can-teach-us-about-long-term-care/#424f8ab6705d; Nanako Tamiya et al., ‘Population ageing and well-being: lessons from Japan’s long-term care insurance policy’, The Lancet, 30 August 2011. Available at: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61176-8/fulltext
Karnataka’s Grama Hiriyara Kendras: These village senior care centres started in 2015 in three villages of Anekal Taluk. The centres are anchored by the Senior Citizen Health Service wing of St. John’s National Academy of Health Sciences. Available at: http://www.stjohns.in/Special_services/Senior CitizensProgramme
11. Section 66(1)(b) of the Factories Act, 1948 states that no woman shall be required or allowed to work in any factory except between the hours of 6 a.m. and 7 p.m.; Section 25 of the Beedi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act, 1966 stipulates that no woman shall be required or allowed to work in any industrial premise except between 6 a.m. and 7 p.m.; Section 46(1)(b) of the Mines Act, 1952 prohibits employment of women in any mine above ground except between the hours of 6 a.m. and 7 p.m. Available at: https://labour.gov.in/womenlabour/about-women-labour
12. Jagriti Chandra and Sumant Sen, ‘Only 20% of Nirbhaya Fund has been used by States until 2018’, The Hindu, 30 June 2019. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/only-20-of-nirbhaya-fund-has-been-used-by-states-until-2018/article28230097.ece
13. ‘Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world’, International Labour Organization, 2014. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_242615.pdf
14. Canadian employment law currently allows for elder-care leave. In 2018, Singapore policymakers began debating a similar legislation.
15. ‘14th International Review of Leave Policies and Related Research 2018’, International Network On Leave Policies And Research, September 2018. Available at: https://www.leavenetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/k_leavenetwork/annual_reviews/Leave_Review_2018.pdf; Elly-Ann Johansson, ‘The effect of own and spousal parental leave on earnings’, Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation, 2010. Available at: https://www.ifau.se/globalassets/pdf/se/2010/wp10-4-the-effect-of-own-and-spousal-parental-leave-on-earnings.pdf
16. Gender Pay Gap Service, UK Government. Available at: https://gender-pay-gap.service.gov.uk/viewing/search-results?t=1&search=
17. On Breakthrough: ‘About Breakthrough’, Breakthrough. Available at: https://inbreakthrough.org/our-story/
Outcomes for girls: ‘Changing Gender Norms’, Breakthrough and J-PAL, 2018. Available at: https://docs.google.com/viewerng/viewer?url=https://inbreakthrough.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/jpal-1.pdf
Outcomes for boys: Diva Dhar et al., ‘Reshaping Adolescents’ Gender Attitudes: Evidence from a School-Based Experiment in India’, NBER Working Paper No. 25331, 30 November 2018. Available at: https://www.nber.org/papers/w25331.pdf
18. Tata STRIVE is a pan-India programme that focuses on skilling India’s youth for employment, entrepreneurship and community enterprise. The core philosophy is to create vocational courses that develop skilled talent across the entire industrial spectrum, as well as nurturing entrepreneurial ambition. Available at: https://www.tatastrive.com/
19. M.L. Melly Maitreyi, ‘Women at the wheel drive change’, The Hindu, 7 March 2018. Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/women-at-the-wheel-drive-change/article22953660.ece
20. Analysis using data from PLFS 2017–18. Formal workers are regular/salaried workers, and informal workers include self-employed and casual workers.
21. ‘The Power of Parity: Advancing Women’s Equality in Asia Pacific’, McKinsey Global Institute, April 2018. Available at: https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Gender%20Equality/The%20power%20of%20parity%20Advancing%20womens%20equality%20in%20Asia%20Pacific/MGI-The-power-of-parity-Advancing-womens-equality-in-Asia-pacific-Full-report.ashx; ‘Women-owned SMEs in Indonesia: A Golden Opportunity for Local Financial Institutions’, International Finance Corporation (in partnership with USAID), March 2016. Available at: https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/260f2097-e440-4599-91ec-e42d45cf3913/SME+Indonesia+Final_Eng.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CVID=lj8qhPY; and ‘Sixth Economic Census’, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2013-14. Available at: http://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/economic-census/sixth_economic_census/all_india/11_ChapterVI_6ecRep_0.pdf
CHAPTER 18: THE EASIEST FIX
1. Anup Karan et al., ‘Size, composition and distribution of human resource for health in India: new estimates using National Sample Survey and Registry data’, BMJ Open, 2019. Available at: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/bmjopen/9/4/e025979.full.pdf
CHAPTER 20: JOBS COUNT
1. All figures sourced from ‘World Population Prospects – 2017 Revision’, UN DESA. Available at: https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/graphic/wpp2017-global-population. The medium fertility variant was used for calculation of age-group-wise projections. For India, UN population growth r
ates were applied to the 2011 census population.
There are multiple definitions of working-age population. India has typically considered fifteen- to fifty-nine-year-olds to be of working age, since the official retirement age for government employees was sixty for a long time. Increasingly however, international organizations and national statistical bodies are adopting a convention of reporting figures for a working-age definition of fifteen years and above. This is both a matter of convenience—dropping the upper end solves the challenge of different retirement ages in different countries—and a reflection of trends in the labour market. This is especially the case in developing countries like India, with large informal workforces, where many people do not earn and save enough to retire at a certain age. They may continue working well past sixty or sixty-five, in the absence of a retirement fund or monetizable assets to depend on. We adopt this convention unless explicitly indicated otherwise.
2. Mihir Sharma, ‘India’s Youth are the World’s Future’, Bloomberg, 8 September 2017. Available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2017-09-08/india-s-youth-are-the-world-s-future
3. The ‘labour force’ includes both people who are working (‘workforce’) and who are looking for work, or say they would work if given the opportunity (‘unemployed’). The unemployment rate is expressed as a percentage of the labour force.
4. Estimates for the population in the age group of fifteen years and older, as of 2017, developed independently by Tata Sons. The estimates are developed using decadal growth rates from the Census of India 2001 and 2011, at the level of sex (male, female), age group (0–14, 15–59 and 60+), and location (urban, rural). Data on the unemployment rate is from PLFS 2017–18.
5. Technically, the share of the working-age population that is working or looking for work is called the labour force participation rate (LFPR). Headline figures such as the unemployment rate and the labour force participation rate in India are sourced from PLFS 2017–18. Figures in millions are estimates by Tata Sons, developed by combining the headline figures (in percentage terms) with estimates of population, separately projected from the Census of India 2001 and 2011.
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