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Footnotes
1The different knowledge structure forms (e.g., categories, schemas, mental models, and logics) differ in complexity. For greater analytical and conceptual simplicity, we decided not to distinguish among the various knowledge structure forms but to instead characterize them based on complexity.
2While environmental dynamism and velocity are different constructs, they are “closely related in practice” (Baum and Wally 2003: 1110).
© The Author(s) 2018
Dean A. Shepherd and Holger PatzeltEntrepreneurial Cognitionhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71782-1_5
5. Entrepreneurial Identity
Dean A. Shepherd1 and Holger Patzelt2
(1)University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN, USA
(2)Technical University Munich, München, Bayern, Germany
Identity refers to the meanings that individuals attach to themselves (Gecas 1982) and is often understood as the answer to the question “Who am I?” (Stryker and Burke 2000). Answering this question allows people to fulfill a basic need to be distinct from others, which is important for psychological (Fromkin and Snyder 1980) and physical (Markus and Kitayama 1991) health . Nevertheless, although the notion that entrepreneurs are different and distinct is a key topic in entrepreneurship studies (e.g., Baker and Nelson 2005; Yli-Renko et al. 2001) and founding and growing a venture may fulfill the psychological need to be unique (Teal and Carroll 1999) and therefore to develop a unique self-identity, doing so may thwart the need to feel belonging (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Tajfel 2010). An unmet need for belonging can lead to feeling isolated (Brewer 1991); this feeling can negatively influence the individual’s physical and psychological well-being (Leonardelli and Brewer 2001). In this chapter, we develop a framework for entrepreneurs’ dealing with multiple micro-identities (Ashforth et al. 2000; Pratt and Forman 2000) and specify entrepreneurs’ strategies to achieve an “ideal” balance between belongingness and distinctiveness (She
pherd and Haynie 2009a). We also explore how individuals can lose their work identities and the role of entrepreneurship in identity recovery and reconstruction.
Distinctiveness
As just mentioned, individuals have a psychological need to feel unique and different from others (Brewer and Pickett 1999; Hornsey and Jetten 2004; Cantor et al. 2002). This feeling of uniqueness is the basis for developing a sense of distinction from others that plays a key role in the development and sustenance of identity (Brewer 1991; Fromkin and Snyder 1980).1 Empirical studies have found that distinguishing oneself from others serves as the foundation for the construction of a unique identity (Teal and Carroll 1999). Moreover, a perceived lack of distinctiveness appears to prompt people to behave in ways that differentiate themselves from referent groups (Tajfel and Turner 1979a, b). This differentiation in turn helps them more clearly define their identities (Turner 1987). As an example, Vignoles et al. (2000) emphasized studies illustrating the prominence of distinctiveness at the identity level, arguing that (1) individuals can memorize information more effectively if it helps them to illustrate how they are different from others (Leyens et al. 1997), (2) groups are seen as being more diverse if the evaluator belongs to the group (Brewer 1993; Park and Rothbart 1982), (3) feelings of intense similarity to other individuals are linked to negative emotions (Fromkin and Snyder 1980), (4) individuals feel a greater sense of identification with groups that are distinct (Brewer and Pickett 1999), and (5) individuals tend to view themselves as less like others than others are to themselves (Codol 1984, 1987).
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