September 1868, reel 22.
5. David S. Beath, Cotton Gin, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., September 26,
1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10; John Dix, Corpus Christi, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., [September 1868], AC, ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 27; Case of Com-
mon Decency vs. Bevy of Young Women, June 24, 1867, SAC, Houston, ROC, Decem-
ber 1865–December 1868, reel 22; B. J. Arnold, Brenham, to E. M. Gregory, October 30,
1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Ruthe Winegarten, ed., Black Texas Women: 150
Years of Trial and Triumph (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 57; Crouch,
“Chords of Love,” 346.
6. Samuel C. Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 27, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Case of Sheania Crawford (fw) vs. Allec Warren (fm),
August 20, 1866, Houston, SAC, ROC, December 1865–December 1868, reel 22; James
P. Butler, Huntsville, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., May 31, 1867, AC, ROC, December
1866–May 1867, reel 20; Franke, “Taking Care,” 1548; James T. Downs, “Diagnosing
Reconstruction: Sickness, Dependency, and the Medical Division of the Freedmen’s
Bureau, 1861–1870” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2005), 175–176; Farmer- Kaiser,
Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau, 50. For works on nineteenth- century atti-
tudes about marriage and gender roles, see Stanley, From Bondage to Contract, 58–59;
Franklin, Ensuring Inequality, 31, 42; and Elizabeth A. Regosin, Freedom’s Promise: Ex-
Slave Families and Citizenship in the Age of Emancipation (Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 2002), 148–157. Agents had leeway in concerning marriage because
Bureau regulations were quite broad. (See Suzanne Stone Johnson, ed., Bitter Freedom:
William Stone’s Record of Service in the Freedmen’s Bureau [Columbia: University of
South Carolina Press, 2010]: 9.)
7. Farmer-
Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau, 157; A. P. Wiley to E.
M. Gregory, February 20, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Patrick F. Duggan,
Columbia, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 24, 1867, SAC, LSRE, April 1867–Novem-
ber 1868, reel 15; Case of Emma Hatfi eld (fw) vs. Lacy McKenzie (wm), Austin June, 4,
1867, Austin, SAC, ROC, June 1867–December 1868, reel 12; Patrick F. Duggan,
Columbia, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 24, 1867, SAC, LSRE, April 1867–Novem-
ber 1868, reel 15. Custody dealings are Case of Maria Scoggs vs. Campbell Trigg, April
4, 1867, Bastrop, SAC, ROC, February 1867–December 1868, reel 12; Endorsement of
letter from Jacob C. DeGress, Houston, to D. F. Meyers, December 13, 1865, AC, ES,
September 1865–March 1867, reel 2; Peter W. Bardaglio, “Challenging Parental Cus-
tody Rights: Th
e Legal Reconstruction of Parenthood in the Nineteenth- Century
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236
Notes to pages 94–96
American South,” Continuity and Change 4 (August 1989): 270–280; Jesse Rigdom,
(fm), to [Headquarters], January 10, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Case of Joanna
(fw) vs. Charles Bowden and Jim Smith (fm), July 10, 1867, Bryan, SAC, ROC, 1866–
1868, reel 14; and Walter B. Pease, Houston, to James P. Hutchison, Columbia, [March
1867], SAC, LR, January 1866–December 1868, reel 15. For cases of excess against
freedmen, see Champ Carter, Sterling, to Colonel, April 19, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867,
reel 4; and William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to Champ Carter, Sterling, April 25, 1866, AC,
LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1.
8. Rhyne, “ ‘Conduct . . . Inexcusable and Unjustifi able,’ ” 331; Case of Mariah Ran-
dom (fw) vs. Lorenzo Random (fm), May 27, 1867, Richmond, SAC, ES, August 1866–
December 1868, reel 25.
9. Hannah Rosen, Terror in the Heartland: Citizenship, Sexual Violence, and the
Meaning of Race in the Postemancipation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Car-
olina Press, 2009), 225; William H. Rock, Richmond, to J. T. Kirkman, July 4, 1867, AC,
ROC, June–August, 1867, reel 21; Complaint of Dr. John Donaldson (fm), June 5, 1867,
Austin, SAC, ROC, June 1867–December 1868, reel 12; Farmer- Kaiser, Freedwomen and
the Freedmen’s Bureau, 78–79; Schwalm, Hard Fight for We, 242–243; and Stanley, From
Bondage to Contract, 37. SACs protecting against white male violence are Case of Tony
Hubert (fw), stepdaughter (fc) vs. John P. Cox, October 28, 1867, Centreville, SAC,
ROC, July–October 1867, reel 14; Case of Jackson (fm) vs. Russell, October 3, 1868,
Houston, SAC, ROC, December 1865–December 1868, reel 22; Lisa Cardyn, “Sexual-
ized Racism/Gendered Violence: Outraging the Body Politics in the Reconstruction
South,” Michigan Law Review 100 (February 2006): 687; Bell Hooks, Ain’t I a Woman:
Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End Press, 1981), 56–57; Gerda Lerner, ed.,
Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Random House,
Inc., 1972), 149; and Case of L. Wolfrom vs. Mary Ann Hodge (fw), October 6, 1866,
Galveston, SAC, ROC, June 1866–July 1868, reel 19.
10. Case of Jennette Le Claire (fw) vs. Julia Johnson (fw), March 27, 1867, Galveston,
SAC, LS, January 1867–June 1868, reel 19; Case of Arica Ward (fw) vs. Dick Grey (fm),
December 2, 1866, Hallettsville, SAC, LS, May–June 1866 and October 1866–March
1868. For antagonism toward prostitutes, see Catherine Clinton, “ ‘Public Women’ and
Sexual Politics During the American Civil War,” in Battle Scars: Gender and Sexuality
in the American Civil War, ed. Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2006), 61–77.
11. Smallwood, Time of Hope, Time of Despair, 94, 6–7; J. B. Kiddoo to O. O. How-
ard, May 15, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; Nehemiah McKinley
Christopher, “Th
e History of Negro Public Education in Texas, 1865–1900” (Ph.D. diss.,
University of Pittsburgh, 1948), 24; E. M. Gregory to O. O. Howard, April 18, 1866, AC,
LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; Sandra Eileen Small, “Th
e Yankee Schoolmarm
in Southern Freedmen’s Schools, 1861–187: Th
e Career of a Stereotype” (Ph.D. diss.,
Washington State University, 1976), 27–28; William Frank Troost, “Accomplishment
and Abandonment: A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau School” (Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of California Irvine, 2007), 25–48; Joe M. Richardson, Christian Reconstruction:
Th
e American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890 (Athens: Univer-
sity of Georgia, 1986), 44; Jacqueline Jones, Soldiers of Light and Love: Northern Teach-
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Notes to pages 96–97
237
ers and Georgia Blacks, 1865–1873 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1980), 9–14; John L. Bell, “Samuel Stanford Ashley, Carpetbagger and Educator,” Th
e
North Carolina Historical Review 72 (Winter 1995): 461–472; Frank M. Hodgson,
“Northern Missionary Aid Societies, the Freedmen’s Bureau and Th
eir
Eff ect on Edu-
cation in Montgomery County, Tennessee, 1862–1870,” Th
e West Tennessee Historical
Society Papers 43 (1989): 33; Ronald E. Butchart, Northern Schools, Southern Blacks,
and Reconstruction: Freedmen’s Education, 1862–1875 (Westport: Greenwood Press,
1980), 138–143; Ronald E. Butchart, “ ‘We Best Can Instruct Our Own People’: New
York African Americans in the Freedmen’s Schools, 1861–1875,” Afro- Americans in
New York Life and History 12 (1988): 27–49; Heather Andrea Williams, “ ‘Clothing
Th
emselves in Intelligence’: Th
e Freedpeople, Schooling, and Northern Teachers, 1861–
1871,” Journal of African American History 87 (Autumn 2002): 372–389; Luther P. Jack-
son, “Th
e Educational Eff orts of the Freedmen’s Bureau and Freedmen’s Aid Societies
in South Carolina, 1862–1872,” Th
e Journal of Negro History 8 (January 1923): 1–40;
John B. Myers, “Th
e Education of the Alabama Freedmen During Presidential Recon-
struction, 1865–1867,” Journal of Negro Education 40 (Spring 1971): 163–171; Ronald E.
Butchart and Amy F. Bolleri, “Iowa Teachers Among the Freedpeople of the South,
1862–1876,” Th
e Annals of Iowa 62 (Winter 2003): 1–29; Joseph Browne, “ ‘To Bring Out
the Intellect of the Race’: An African American Freedmen’s Bureau Agent in Mary-
land,” Maryland Historical Magazine 104 (Winter 2008): 374–401; Henry Allen Bull-
ock, A History of Negro Education in the South: From 1619 to the Present (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1967), 23; Robert C. Morris, Reading, ’Riting, and Recon-
struction: Th
e Education of Freedmen in the South, 1861–1870 (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1981), xi. For the focus on moral uplift , see “Education of the Colored
Man,” Speech by O. O. Howard, date unknown, Oliver Otis Howard Papers,
Moorland- Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Box 53–2, Folder 88, Wash-
ington, D.C.; F. P. Wood, Brenham, to Joseph Welch, Superintendent of Education,
December 31, 1868, SUP, LR, 1868–1870, reel 9; James C. Devine, Jasper, to J. T. Kirk-
man, A.A.A.G., July 30, 1867, AC, ROC, June–August 1867, reel 21; William H. Sinclair,
A.A.G., to John F. Brown, Grimes, March 8, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867,
reel 1; O. O. Howard to J. W. McKim, March 11, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; George
T. Ruby, Traveling Agent, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools,
August 12, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; J. W. McConaughey, Wharton, to J. T.
Kirkman, A.A.A.G., April 3, 1867, AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; and
Circular Letter from O. O. Howard, May 15, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6. Unlike
operations in other states, such as Louisiana, the assistant commissioners in Texas did
not enact a tax or fee on contracts or wages to fund educational eff orts (see Susan E.
Dollar, Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau Schools of Natchitoches Parish Louisiana, 1865–1868
[Natcitoches, LA: Northwestern State University Press, 1998], 10).
12. Circular Letter No. 20, August 31, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel
19; James D. Anderson, Th
e Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 5; Circular No. 4, March 29, 1867, AC, IRB,
October 1865–Arpil 1869, reel 19; Charles Griffi
n to O. O. Howard, July 1, 1867, AC,
IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Patrick F. Duggan, Columbia, to J. T. Kirkman,
A.A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools, August 23, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3;
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238
Notes to pages 97–98
Edwin Miller, Millican, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools, March
30, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; O. E. Pratt, Austin, to [Headquarters], September
15, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; William H. Rock, Richmond, to J. T. Kirkman,
A.A.A.G., AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; Louis W. Stevenson, Colum-
bus, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., April 23, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; Alex
Coggeshall, Bastrop, to E. M. Wheelock, Superintendent of Schools, January 9, 1867,
SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; James C. Devine, Huntsville, to E. M. Wheelock, Superin-
tendent of Schools, March 1, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; James P. Butler, Browns-
ville, to E. M. Wheelock, Superintendent of Schools, February 28, 1867, LR, 1866–1867,
reel 3; Patrick F. Duggan, Columbia, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 25, 1867, AC, LS,
1866–1867, reel 5; Mortimer H. Goddin, Livingston, to [Charles Griffi
n], April 19, 1867,
AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; Charles Haughn, Waco, to [J. J. Reynolds], September 16,
1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 12. Charles Griffi
n’s requirements toward education can
be found in Circular letter from [Charles Griffi
n], February 7, 1867, AC, IRB, October
1865–April 1869, reel 19.
13. Austin Weekly Southern Intelligencer, February 22, 1868; Frederick Eby, Th
e
Development of Education in Texas (New York: Th
e Macmillan Company, 1925), 157;
Hardin Hart, Greenville, to Charles Garretson, A.A.A.G., September 25, 1867, LR,
1866–1867, reel 3; Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to E. M. Gregory, Superintendent of
Schools, January 12, 1867, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; John H. Archer, Beaumont, to J. P.
Richardson, A.A.A.G., November 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; Barry Crouch, “Th
e
Freedmen’s Bureau in Beaumont,” Texas Gulf Historical and Biographical Record (Part
Two) 29 (1993): 24; Barbara J. Hayward, “Winning the Race: Education of Texas Freed-
men Immediately Aft er the Civil War” (Ph.D. diss., University of Houston, 1999), 212;
Mahlon E. Davis, Houston, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., October 1, 1868, AC, ROC,
August–October, 1868, reel 27; L. S. Barnes, Crockett, to E. M. Wheelock, Superinten-
dent of Schools, February 22, 1866, ULR, 1866–1867 and 1869–1870, reel 10; D. T. Allen,
Assistant Superintendent of Schools, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 1, 1867, SUP, LR,
1866–1867, reel 4; Henry Sweeney, Marshall, to Joseph Welch, Superintendent of Edu-
cation, September 25, 1868, SUP, LR, 1868–1870, reel 8; Alfred T. Manning, Waco, to E.
M. Wheelock, Superintendent of Schools, January 1, 1866, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4;
Joshua L. Randall, Sterling, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., August 31, 1867, AC, ROC,
June–August, 1867, reel 21; Isaac M. Beebe, Marshall, to E. M. Wheelock, Superinten-
dent of Schools, June 21, 1866, SUP, ULR, 1866–1867 and 1869–1870, reel 10; Ira H.
Evans, Wharton, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools, July 31, 1867,
SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; David L. Montgomery, Tyler, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G.,
Superintendent of Schools, June 14, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Crouch, “Black
Education in Civil War and Reconstruction Louisiana,” 287–308; Charles Kassel,
“Educating the Slave—A Forgotten Chapter of Civil War History,” Open Court 40
(1927): 239–256; Joshua L. Randall, St
erling, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., [October
1867], AC, ROC, September–October, 1867, reel 22.
14. H. S. Howe, Round Top, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., November 30, 1867, SUP,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; John H. Archer, Hempstead, to E. M. Wheelock, Superintendent
of Schools, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; J. H. Bradford, Centreville, to Charles Garret-
son, A.A.A.G., AC, ROC, September–October, 1867, reel 22; Nesbit B. Jenkins, Whar-
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Notes to page 98
239
ton, to Joseph Welch, Superintendent of Education, December 31, 1868, SUP, LR,
1868–1870, reel 6; Anthony M. Bryant, Sherman, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., October
31, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; A. H. Cox, Liberty, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G.,
December 1868, AC, ROC, November–December, 1868, reel 28. For freedmen apathy
toward education, see S. H. Starr, Mount Pleasant, to Charles Garretson, A.A.A.G.,
October 4, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4. For problems, such as lack of funds for
tuition, see James P. Butler, Huntsville, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., November 30,
1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; Edward Collins, Brenham, to [J. T. Kirkman, A.A.G.,
Superintendent of Schools], April 1, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; J. R. Fitch, Indi-
anola, to [J. T. Kirkman, A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools], May 7, 1867, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 3; C. Stuart McGehee, “E. O. Trade, Freedmen’s Education, and the Failure of
Reconstruction in Tennessee,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 43 (1984): 376–389; and
Whittington B. Johnson, “A Black Teacher and Her School in Reconstruction Darien:
Th
e Correspondence of Hettie Sabattie and J. Murray Hoag, 1868–1869,” Th
e Georgia
Historical Quarterly 75 (Spring 1991): 90–105. Th
e frustration and doubt concerning the
“experiment” of black education was even evident with Freedmen’s Bureau teachers
(see Samuel L. Horst, ed., Th
e Fire of Liberty in Th
eir Hearts: Th
e Diary of Jacob E.
Yoder of the Freedmen’s Bureau School, Lynchburg, Virginia, 1866–1870 [Richmond: Th
e
Library of Virginia, 1996], xix).
15. Small, “Th
e Yankee Schoolmarm in Southern Freedmen’s Schools,” 29; William
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