esis, University of Houston, 1962.
Burks, William H. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau, Politics, and Stability Operations During
Reconstruction in the South.” Master’s Th
esis, U.S. Air Force Academy, 2009.
Carrier, John Pressley. “A Political History of Texas During the Reconstruction,
1865–1874.” Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 1971.
Chartock, Lewis C. “A History and Analysis of Labor Contracts Administered by the
Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands in Edgefi eld, Abbeville
and Anderson Counties, South Carolina, 1865–1868.” Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr
College, 1974.
Christopher, Nehemiah McKinley. “Th
e History of Negro Public Education in Texas,
1865–1900.” Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1948.
Clayton, Barbara Leah. “Th
e Lone Star Conspiracy: Racial Violence and Ku Klux Klan
Terror in Post–Civil War Texas, 1865–1877.” Master’s Th
esis, Oklahoma State Uni-
versity, 1986.
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 295
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 295
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
296 Bibliography
Cole, Fred. “Texas Career of Th
omas Affl
eck.” Ph.D. diss., Louisiana State University,
1942.
Downs, James T. “Diagnosing Reconstruction: Sickness, Dependency, and the Medical
Division of the Freedmen’s Bureau, 1861–1870.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University,
2005.
Drago, Edmund L. “Black Georgia During Reconstruction.” Ph.D. diss., University of
California- Berkeley, 1975.
Dudley, Ross Nathaniel. “Texas Reconstruction: Th
e Role of the Bureau of Refugees,
Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1870, Smith County, (Tyler) Texas.” Mas-
ter’s Th
esis, Texas A&I University, 1986.
Engerrand, Steven. “Now Scratch or Die: Th
e Genesis of Capitalistic Agricultural
Labor in Georgia, 1865–1880.” Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1981.
Everly, Elaine Cutler. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau in the National Capital.” Ph.D. diss.,
George Washington University, 1971.
Farmer, Mary J. “Freewomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public
Policy in the Age of Emancipation.” Ph.D. diss., Bowling Green State University,
2000.
Field, Barbara J., and Leslie S. Rowland. “Free Labor Ideology and Its Exponents in the
South During the Civil War and Reconstruction.” Paper presented at the Organiza-
tion of American Historians Annual Meeting, 1984.
Flanigan, David J. “Th
e Criminal Law of Slavery and Freedom, 1800–1868.” Ph.D. diss.,
Rice University, 1973.
Goldberg, Chad Alan. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil War Pensions: Race and Pol-
icy Feedback in America’s Nineteenth- Century Welfare State.” Paper presented at
the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, 2006.
Gray, Charles. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau: A Missing Chapter in Social Welfare History.”
D.S.W., Ph.D. diss., Yeshiva University, 1994.
Hales, Douglas. “Violence Perpetrated Against African Americans by Whites in Texas
During Reconstruction, 1865–1868.” Master’s Th
esis, Texas Tech University, 1994.
Harper, Jr., Cecil. “Freedmen’s Bureau Agents: A Profi le.” Paper presented at the Texas
State Historical Association Annual Meeting, 1987.
Harris, Anne Barber. “Th
e South as Seen by Travelers, 1865–1880.” Ph.D. diss., Univer-
sity of North Carolina, 1971.
Hayward, Barbara J. “Winning the Race: Education of Texas Freedmen Immediately
Aft er the Civil War.” Ph.D. diss., University of Houston, 1999.
Hickin, Patricia P. “John Curtis Underwood and the Antislavery Crusade, 1809–1860.”
Master’s Th
esis: University of Virginia, 1961.
Jackson, LaVonne Roberts. “ ‘Family and Freedom’: Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and
African- American Women in Texas in the Reconstruction Era, 1865–1872.” Ph.D.
diss., Howard University, 1996.
Kickler, Troy Lee. “Black Children and Northern Missionaries: Freedmen’s Bureau
Agents, and Southern Whites in Reconstruction Tennessee, 1865–1869.” Ph.D. diss.,
University of Tennessee, 2003.
Kosary, Rebecca A. “Regression to Barbarism in Reconstruction Texas: An Analysis of
White Violence Against African- Americans from the Texas Freedmen’s Bureau
Records, 1865–1868.” Master’s Th
esis, Southwest Texas State, 1999.
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 296
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 296
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
Bibliography 297
———. “To Degrade and Control: White Violence and the Maintenance of Racial and
Gender Boundaries in Reconstruction Texas, 1865–1868.” Ph.D. diss., Texas A&M
University, 2006.
Masur, Katherine. “Reconstructing the Nation’s Capital: Th
e Politics of Race and Citi-
zenship in the District of Columbia, 1862–1878.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michi-
gan, 2001.
May, J. Th
omas. “Th
e Medical Care of Blacks in Louisiana During the Occupation and
Reconstruction, 1862–1868: Its Social and Political Background.” Ph.D. diss., Tulane
University, 1972.
McFeely, William S. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau: A Study in Betrayal.” Ph.D. diss., Yale
University, 1966.
Olds, Victoria. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau as a Social Agency.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia
University, 1966.
Owens, Nora Estelle. “Presidential Reconstruction in Texas: A Case Study.” Ph.D. diss.,
Auburn University, 1983.
Owens, James L. “Th
e Negro in Georgia during Reconstruction, 1864–1872: A Social
History.” Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 1975.
Pfanz, Harry Wilcox. “Soldiering in the South During Reconstruction, 1865–1877.”
Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1958.
Philips, Paul David. “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau in Tennessee.” Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt
University, 1966.
Sherman, Honorine Anne. “Th
e Freedmen’s in Louisiana.” Master’s Th
esis, Tulane
University, 1936.
Shlomowitz, Ralph. “Th
e Transition from Slave to Freedman Labor Arrangements in
Southern Agriculture, 1865–1870.” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1979.
Shook, Robert W. “Federal Occupation and Administration of Texas, 1865–1870.” Ph.D.
diss., North Texas State University, 1972.
Small, Sandra Eileen. “Th
e Yankee Schoolmarm in Southern Freedmen’s Schools,
1861–1871: Th
e Career of a Stereotype.” Ph.D. diss., Washington State University,
1976.
Troost, William Frank. “Accomplishment and Abandonment: A History of the Freed-
men’s Bureau Schools.” Ph.D. diss., University of California Irvine, 2007.
Volz, Harry August. “Th
e Administration of Justice by the Freedmen’s Bureau in Ken-
tucky, South Carolina, and Virgin
ia.” Master’s Th
esis, University of Virginia, 1975.
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 297
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 297
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
This page intentionally left blank
Index
A. Ruttkey & Company, 141–142
appointed Subassistant Commission-
abolitionism. See Assistant Commission-
ers (SACs), 113; and competency of
ers: Gregory, Edgar M.
appointments, 114; and composition
adultery, 92–93. See also marriage; moral-
of agents, 113, 123; Griffi
n’s education
ity; prostitution
policy, 96; and Griffi
n’s judicial pol-
Alabama, 7, 9–10, 164
icy, 73, 125–127, 151, 251n27, 252n29;
Allec (no last name), 93
and labor policy and problems, 111–
Allen, Richard, 6
113, 132, 140–142, 176; and length of apprenticeship, 43, 53–54, 80–88, 93, 112,
tenure of appointments, 113; and rea-
126, 170–171, 231–232n33, 232nn35,37,
sons appointments left agency, 114;
233n38, 234n43; and composition of
and registration and politics, 115–124,
cases, 83; and criticisms of, 85–87;
267–268n17. See also Subassistant
and number of cases, 80; and out-
Commissioners
come, 83–84; and Subassistant
Kiddoo, Joseph Barr, 15, 19, 44–48,
Commissioners’ opinions on, 85–86,
50–51, 53–59, 62–67, 77–78, 80–81,
170. See also Subassistant
88–89, 96, 99, 108–109, 111–114, 130,
Commissioners
140, 149, 154, 175–177, 214–215n1,
Arapaho Indians, 149
223n2; and appointed Subassistant
Arizona, 16
Commissioners (SACs), 63–65; com-
Arlington National Cemetery, 13, 17, 149
petency of appointments, 66–67;
Assistant Commissioners:
and composition of agents, 15, 63–66;
Gregory, Edgar M. , 10, 15, 19, 30–32,
and Kiddoo’s education and prob-
37–39, 44–47, 49–50, 53, 64, 67–68, 93,
lems, 96–99; and labor policy and
112–113, 149, 154, 175, 206n4, 207n5;
problems, 48–51, 96, 102, 108–109,
and appointed Subassistant Com-
215n2; and length of tenure of
missioners (SACs), 31–32, 207n7; and
appointments, 64; and reasons
competency of appointments, 44–46;
appointments left agency, 64
and composition of agents, 44; and
Reynolds, Joseph Jones, 17, 64, 68, 113,
Gregory’s judicial policy; and labor
145, 147–152–155, 159, 163–165, 177, 179;
policy and problems, 31–32, 37–39, 43;
and appointed Subassistant Commis-
and length of tenure of appoint-
sioners (SACs), 149; and competency
ments, 44; and marriage policy, 91,
of appointments, 149; and composi-
235n6; and occupations of appoint-
tion of agents, 149; and labor policy
ments, 18; and reasons appointments
and problems, 150, 155; and length of
left agency, 44–45, 31–32, 43
tenure of appointments, 149; and rea-
Griffi
n, Charles, 31, 52, 64, 67, 73–74, 96,
sons appointments left agency,
109–115, 118, 123–126, 130, 132, 140–
149–150; Reynolds’ judicial policy,
142, 145–151, 154, 176–177; and
153–155, 164
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 299
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 299
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
300 Index
Austin, Travis County, Texas, 13, 17, 26,
Abandoned Lands; Subassistant
69, 75, 81, 85, 118, 130, 134, 136, 149,
Commissioners
151, 164
Bureau of Freedmen, Refugees, and
Austin County, Texas, 157, 207n7
Abandoned Lands (Freedmen’s
Bureau), 1–3, 5–7, 14–16, 18, 76, 79,
Baker, Cullen, 159, 161
80–81, 87, 89, 104–105, 109, 111, 118–
Bardaglio, Peter, 2
119, 123–124, 128, 130, 136, 139, 142, Barkley, Benjamin Franklin, 6
144–145, 148–149, 151, 153, 159–162,
Bartholomew, E. C. , 145
165–167, 170, 173, 175, 179; and aban-Bastrop, Bastrop County, Texas, 97,
doned land policy, 37; and
99–100, 134–135, 165
alternatives to, 179–180; and appren-
Beaumont, Jeff erson County, Texas, 59,
ticeship policy, 80–88, 170–171; and
97, 128, 136
confl ict with civil authorities, 51–58,
Bell, William J. A. , 134–135
75–76, 140–141, 151–152, 163, 177–178; Belton, Bell County, Texas, 120, 152
and confl ict with white Texans,
Bentley, George R. , 58
54–55, 58–59, 83, 125–127, 133–134,
Black Codes, 79–80, 82, 88, 155, 170. See
136–138, 152, 154, 158–162, 175; and also Bureau courts; Bureau of Freed-criticisms of labor policy, 105; and
men, Refugees, and Abandoned
education policy, 96; and free labor
Lands
ideology and problems, 33, 38–39,
Blair, William, 179
48–51, 102–103, 108–109, 112, 154–155,
Boris, Eileen, 2
175; and historiography and bibliog-
Boston, Massachusetts, 49, 84, 144, 161
raphy, 3, 196n6, 197nn7,8, 198n9; and Brenham, Washington County, Texas,
O. O. Howard, 2, 15, 30–32, 37–38, 48,
55–56, 68, 82, 92, 98, 106–107, 154, 157,
56, 58, 65, 68–69, 77–78, 91, 99, 106,
207n7
109, 112, 116, 121–122, 126, 128, 142,
Bryan, Brazos County, Texas, 24, 84, 128,
145, 149–150, 153, 174, 252n28; and
144, 158
judicial policy and proceedings,
Bryant, Charles, 6
40–41, 68–96; and jurisdiction and Brooks, George E. , 158
authority, 76–77, 125–127, 151–154;
Brown, Miles, 158
and leniency toward freedpeople, 41,
Brownsville, Cameron County, Texas, 16,
168; and misconceptions to resis-
97
tance, 177–178; and origins,
bureaucratization. See Bureau of Freed-
criticisms, and mandate, 1–2, 5–6,
men, Refugees, and Abandoned
30–31, 167, 195n2; planter acceptance, Lands; Subassistant Commissioners
212–213n26, 213n27; and reasons for
Bureau courts, 63, 68–88, 227n14; and failure, 168, 178–181, 198n1, 273n27;
confl ict and criticisms, 76–79; and
and sharecropping vs. wage labor,
confusion, 77, 154; and nature of
102–105, 169, 243n29, 243n30; and off ense, 69–74, 89–91, 94–95, 227n15,
vagrancy policy, 38–39, 51, 95, 217n8;
228n20; and number, 69, 74, 89–90,
and white resistance to, 40–41, 48,
94; and outcome, 70, 84, 89–90, 95;
134, 148. See also Bureau courts; Sub-
and racial/gender composition, 70,
assistant Commissioners
73, 80, 83, 89, 92, 94–95
. See also Bureau teachers. See education
Bureau of Freedmen, Refugees, and
Burnside, Ambrose P. , 18
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 300
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 300
4/27/16 11:13 AM
4/27/16 11:13 AM
Index 301
Campbell, Randolph B. , 211–212n24,
Corsicana, 137
203nn28,29, 204n33
Cotton Gin, Freestone County, Texas, 67,
Cantrell, Greg, 227n14
92, 121, 125, 136–137, 163
carpetbagger, 3, 10, 12, 118, 128, 161,
Cox, John P. , 95
200–201n9
Cox, LaWanda and John, 15
Carpenter, John A. , 1, 42, 120, 129
Crawford, Sheania, 93
Centreville, Leon County, Texas, 127, 142
Crazy Horse, 149
children, 53, 70–71, 80–82, 84–86, 97, 170.
Crockett, Houston County, Texas, 42–43,
See also apprenticeship; domesticity;
52, 69, 76, 104, 177
Subassistant Commissioners
Crouch, Barry, 2, 227n14
Cimbala, Paul A. , 4, 21, 120, 204n32
Custer, George A. , 5, 17, 48, 149
citizenship, 78–79, 87–88, 91, 94, 123, 125,
167, 171, 175, 177, 179
Dallas, Dallas County, Texas, 16, 137, 142,
civil courts, 125–126
161
Civil Rights Act of 1866, 59, 76–77, 79, 125,
Dallas Herald, 178
226–227n13
Davis, Governor Edmund Jackson, 12–13,
Civil War History, 180
25, 44, 118, 124, 137
Clark, C. C. , 152
Davis, Jeff erson, 118
Clarksville, Red River County, Texas, 12,
De Forest, John William, 60
116, 137–139
Degener, Edward, 25
Cole, Richard, 50
Democrat, 12–13, 17, 20, 52, 54, 116, 118,
Columbia, Brazoria County, Texas, 126,
120–123, 126, 156, 159–160
146, 157, 164
Denson, B. H. , 36
Columbus, Colorado County, Texas, 37, 43,
Department of Arkansas, 148
49, 61, 67, 76, 98, 103, 129, 144, 207n7
Department of California, 16
Congressional Reconstruction, 115, 130.
Department of the Lakes, 48
See also Assistant Commissioners
Department of Texas, 17
Confederate/Confederacy, 1, 5, 9–10, 13, 16,
dependency, 85–87, 91, 93–95, 217n8,
18, 23, 25, 28, 31, 37, 54, 57, 66, 79–80,
233n39. See also Bureau courts;
98, 111, 114–115, 118–119, 123–124, 130,
Bureau of Freedmen, Refugees, and
138, 163, 166, 168, 178–180, 250n23
Abandoned Lands; domesticity; free
Constitutional Convention of 1866, 11, 137
9780823268757.pdf Page 58